Foundations of Essential Oil Therapy

The School for Aromatic Studies Health Disclaimer

I am sure, like so many individuals throughout the world, you have experienced the beauty and health benefits of essential oils. We, at the School for Aromatic Studies, certainly believe that essential oils have a valuable place in our essential wellness box.

And many ask the staff or our instructors how essential oils may be used for specific ailments either they or someone in their family is experiencing. Due to legal and time restraints, the staff, instructors, and blog authors are unable to answer questions about specific health conditions.

The student forum may be used to discuss health related topics to share experiences with fellow students. Shared information through students does not represent the opinions of the school. We recommend avoiding direct health advice on the student forums. You are responsible for consulting a medical professional before trying any new herb or remedy mentioned in the website or any related forum.

The content on our website and in our online courses is for educational purposes only.
We cannot diagnose health conditions, nor prescribe medicines legally; we are not medical doctors. However, we will recommend or suggest medicinal herbs for various health complaints, as we believe in the safety and efficacy of botanical medicine.

The information we provide is not intended to be a substitute for medical treatment.
Please consult your medical or health care provider before using aromatherapy (particularly internally), or if you have a known medical condition or if you are pregnant or nursing.

We believe you are responsible for your own health.

Essential oils need to be used ethically and responsibly. The most common adverse side effects experienced from using essential oils include: dermal irritation, dermal sensitization, nausea, headaches, and dermal burning (e.g. the use of a photosensitizing oil such as bergamot – citrus bergamia) and allergic reaction. Although these adverse events are generally extremely rare, it is important to know the safety of each essential oil you are using as well as the individual you may be using them with.

The School cannot predict how a remedy will work for you nor can we know the authenticity or quality of the essential oils being used. Always refer to your medical care provider for questions about your health.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF OLFACTION

Smell begins with the breath, and breathing is the most vital of human bodily functions and the most necessary for survival. As human beings, we could survive days without food and water and yet only minutes without air. Breathing occurs in two wondrous phases: inhalation and exhalation. Throughout our lives, breaths come in pairs, with the exception of birth, when we inhale for the first time, and death when we exhale for the last time. As we go about our day, we breathe approximately 23,000 times and move approximately 440 cubic feet of air.

We live in a world that provides a constant abundance of aromas swirling in the air around us. With every breath, we take in a dynamic landscape of aromas that can be consciously or unconsciously registered, and yet they are there, surrounding us, beckoning for recognition.

The Nose

The nose includes an external portion that juts out from the face, and an internal portion called the nasal cavity, which is responsible for the passage of air. The nose is divided into two by the nasal septum, which is made up of septal cartilage and the ethmoid and vomer bones.

Inside each nasal cavity are two parts: the olfactory part and the respiratory part.

The olfactory part of the nasal cavity is made up of the upper (superior) portion and a portion of the central section of the nasal cavity, while the remaining tissue closer to the projection of the nose and a portion of the central section is the respiratory part.

Sniffing increases the airflow through to the upper sinuses, hence increasing our perception of an aroma.

The respiratory part of the nasal cavity is lined with columnar and ciliated epithelium, while the cells in the olfactory portion are made of columnar yet non-ciliated epithelium. The entire inside of the nasal cavity is generously supplied with mucus-secreting goblet cells.

The main functions of the nasal cavity include:

• Warms, moistens and cleanses the air we breathe in through the nose.
• Nasal hairs filter the air of small particles.
• Contains the olfactory epithelium, located in the upper portion of the nasal cavity.
• Plays a role in voice phonetics and acts as a resonating chamber.

Olfactory Epithelium

Piet Vroon, the author of ‘Smell: The Secret Seducer,’ considers olfactory epithelium to be the actual organ of smell. Let us explore this interesting tissue, which resides in the upper portions of our nasal cavities.

An odor, smell, or aroma is created by minute gaseous-like particles released by various objects or substances. When we smell lavender, for instance, its purple, sweet aroma enters our nasal cavity. As the aromatic air-born molecules travel up through the nasal cavity, some molecules are absorbed by the olfactory epithelium, while the remainder is inhaled via the respiratory tract into the lungs.

Olfactory epithelium is a specialized epithelial tissue inside the nasal cavity that is involved in smell. In humans, it measures about 2 cm by 5 cm long (about 1 inch wide by 2 inches) and lies on the roof of the nasal cavity about 3 inches (about 7 cm) above and behind the nostrils. The olfactory epithelium in each nostril contains over 3-5 million olfactory receptor cells (ORC). Total receptor cells in the nasal cavity: 6-10 million.

These olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons that function as chemoreceptors (sensory receptors that create a chemical signal into a nerve impulse). Bipolar neurons are neurons that have two branching processes: a dendrite and a neurite.

The dendrites of olfactory sensory neurons project directly onto the surface of the mucus membranes, with each dendrite ending in several fine, hair-like projections known as cilia.

These cilia extend beyond the epithelium surface into the mucosa and are considered to be naked neurons, which means they are in direct contact with the outside world. Olfactory receptor cells are found in these tiny hairs or cilia. The cilia, immersed in a fluid mucus layer, are the site of interaction between odors and the receptor neuron (olfactory transduction).

The neurites, on the other hand, run inward and upward and are believed to serve as a connection to the olfactory nerve. Thickness and viscosity of the olfactory epithelium is variable in each person and can be affected by hormones, diet, and health.

Other cells contained within the olfactory epithelium include support cells and basal cells.

• Sustentacular Cells: The sustentacular cells play a variety of crucial roles to keep the olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) functioning at their best. Sustentacular cells are like the ultimate support staff. They provide structural scaffolding to keep the OSNs neatly organized, supply them with essential nutrients and energy, and maintain the optimal balance of fluids and ions in their environment. They even act as the cleanup crew, gobbling up debris, damaged cells, and potential microbial invaders to keep the epithelium spick and span.
• Basal cells are found on the underside of the epithelium. Olfactory basal cells are capable of neurogenesis, which means they are capable of creating new nerve tissue to replace the old. And this is exactly what happens with the sense of smell. Because olfactory cilia are exposed directly to the air and everything that the air contains, their life is short.

Olfactory epithelium regenerates every 30-60 days. This incredible ability of the olfactory tissue to reproduce nerve tissue illustrates its importance to human survival and the experience of living.

Interesting Fact: Pregnancy and Olfactory Neurogenesis

Early during pregnancy, there is a huge burst in the production of new olfactory neurons. They are fully online just around the time of birth, and the scientist who discovered this speculated that these new olfactory neurons are tagged for the task of imprinting forever on the smell of your offspring (a critical event for mothers of most mammals). The new olfactory neurons that show up in early pregnancy may have something to do with the famed nausea of pregnancy, food aversions, and olfactory sensitivities.

Many factors play a role in the rate and magnitude at which an aroma is absorbed into the olfactory epithelium. These factors include:

1. The solubility of the aroma itself: lipophilic or fatty substances will dissolve very easily in the olfactory epithelium
2. Molecular weight of the odorant: The heavier the molecular weight, the more difficulty the molecule will have moving in the air current, and hence absorption will be reduced.
3. Thickness of mucus layer: A thickened mucus layer slows down the speed of reaction to an odorant and, at times, can create partial anosmia. (E.g., such as during the common cold) It is known that individuals who smoke have a thicker mucus layer in their olfactory epithelium, making their ability to smell just slightly impaired, I say slightly, because a thickened mucus layer also enhances smell. Let me explain. When there is a thickened mucus layer, there are a larger number of olfactory cilia; as a result, an odorant is able to make a number of attachments, thus increasing its substance concentration and impact.

Cracking the Code of Smell: The Nobel-Winning Discovery

In 2004, two brilliant scientists, Dr. Linda Buck and Dr. Richard Axel, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their groundbreaking work on the sense of smell. Their research aimed to answer two big questions: How can we smell so many different odors, and how does our brain make sense of all this information?

Buck and Axel had a hunch that the key lay in a wide variety of odor receptors. And they were right! Through their work, they identified around 350 different types of these smell-detecting molecules. But the real magic happens when these receptors team up.

Imagine odor receptors as letters of the alphabet. Just as you can create countless words with only 26 letters, different combinations of receptors can recognize an endless array of scents. Each odor molecule fits into several receptors, and it’s this unique pattern of activation that lets us identify a particular aroma.

But the story doesn’t end there. Buck and Axel also discovered that as smell information travels from the nose to different parts of the brain, it gets organized in new ways at each step. In the olfactory bulb and cortex, the smell “code” is deciphered, and the various components are brought back together to create a cohesive scent perception.

From there, the information journeys to brain regions, allowing us to not only identify the scent but also associate it with memories and emotions. So, the next time you catch a whiff of your favorite food or a nostalgic aroma, remember the incredible work of Buck and Axel and the complex interplay of receptors and brain regions that makes it all possible!

To read more about their Nobel prize, visit: http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/press.html

This image was obtained from:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/press.html

Pathway of an Aroma

Once the olfactory epithelium receives an odorant or aroma, a nerve impulse is initiated into the olfactory bulb. The olfactory bulb sits on top of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and is continuous with the olfactory tract. The olfactory nerves are connected at the bottom of the bulb. The olfactory bulb serves as the first site of odor recognition before it is passed on.

The nerve impulse is passed from the olfactory bulb along the olfactory tract. The olfactory tract is a band of white matter that sends odor-related nerve impulses to the limbic system, beginning with the amygdala. Heavy innervation of the amygdala by primary olfactory structures provides a powerful mechanism for the rich experiences that can stem from olfactory sensation. The role of the amygdala in emotion, memory, and autonomic control directly ties olfaction to these primordial functions and adds complexity to the odor perceptual experience.

The temporal and frontal lobes then interpret and perceive the odor. Thus, olfactory nerve projection encompasses the entire limbic region and associated pathways. Impulses that reach the limbic system activate smell-related emotions and behaviors.

Now, let us explore the limbic system!

Learn how to make a simple herbal oil using the folk method

Herbal Infused Oils and Salves

with Juliet Blankespoor

Many herbs graciously lend their medicine and aroma to oil. Herbal infused oils act to extract and preserve the medicinal qualities of herbs, providing a convenient and pleasurable form of topical application. Certain constituents in healing herbs are readily extracted in oils. Examples are: volatile or essential oils, lipids, and resins. Preparing herbal oils is quite easy, especially if you follow a few basic guidelines. The first thing to remember is that oil can ferment or mold when water is added. Any water added to herbal-infused oil has the potential of ruining the oil, including water lingering on the inside of kitchen implements (pots, jars, and their lids), or water from the juices of fresh herbs themselves. For this reason, I prepare my oils from dried herbs, with a few exceptions. When I first began making herbal infused oils I would use fresh herbs and place the jars in the sun to slowly infuse, and while that worked most of the time, I ended up with a few off-batches. I switched to using partially wilted herbs with the hope of reducing the water content of the herbs, while maintaining the fresh vitality of the herb. In my experience, this method produces high quality oils over 90% of the time, but every now and then you might end up with a ruined batch of oil, which can be a sad moment indeed.

If you are new to preparing herbal medicinal oils, I recommend working with freshly dried herbs, herbs that have recently been harvested and dried. There are many herbalists who wouldn’t dream of making herbal infused oil with dried herbs; may their jars never mold and their salves be forever sweet! Seriously, there are many ways to prepare beautiful infused oils. I recommend trying the following methods initially and then you can branch out using your intuition, experience, and common sense.

I typically use extra-virgin olive oil (Olea europaea, Oleaceae) as it has a long shelf life and readily dissolves into the skin. If you will be using your oil for massage or broad application consider using sesame (Sesamum indicum, Pedaliaceae), coconut (Cocus nucifera, Arecaceae), jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis, Simmondsiaceae), or sweet almond oil (Prunus amygdalus, Rosaceae). After preparing your herbal infused oil, you may choose to use it as a stand-alone oil, or transform it into an herbal salve, body butter or cream.

Preparing an Herbal Infused Oil

There are many effective methods for preparing herbal oils. I will share my two preferred methods here. It is fine to combine multiple herbs in a single jar or pot for a specific formula rather than making separate individual oils. You can use either method alone, or you may choose to employ the maceration method, followed by the heat method. For resinous herbs, I recommend using heat to gently melt and extract the resin. Examples of resinous herbs include: calendula (Calendula officinalis, Asteraceae), chaparral (Larrea tridentata, Zygophyllaceae), poplar buds (balm of Gilead) (Populus spp., Salicaceae), and resins from conifers or sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua, Altingiaceae). If you need a medicinal oil right away consider the heat method as it only takes one day to complete the process.

• Maceration Method

  Gather your herb(s) and dry thoroughly. If you are purchasing dried herbs, make sure they are fresh and of high quality. Combine the dried herb with extra-virgin olive oil in the blender, food processor, or vita-mixer so the herb is completely covered with oil and blended to a coarse texture. Aim for a coarse pesto-like texture. Blending your herbs to a fine texture will create a more concentrated oil by increasing the surface area of herb exposed to the oil. If you are buying herbs and they are already ground to a fine texture you can skip blending. Note that there are no exact measurements or proportions: this is not necessary with the topical nature of oil preparations. The oil will be more medicinal, or concentrated, if you use a higher proportion of herb to oil.

  Place the herb and oil slurry in a clean, dry, glass jar, taking care that the herb is completely submerged in the oil by one to two inches. You may need to top the herbal slurry with additional oil. Place the jar in a dark cabinet for four weeks.

  Exception: If you are making Saint John’s wort oil (Hypericum perforatum and H. punctatum, Hypericaceae) use freshly wilted flowers (flowers picked yesterday), do not blend, and place in a sunny window for four weeks. Strain your slurry (see instructions below) or finish your oil with the Heat Method, especially with resinous herbs.

• Heat Method

  Blend your freshly dried or purchased herb as outlined above. Place the mixture in a double boiler. You can improvise a double boiler by nesting two pots together; or placing Mason jar bands upside down in a saucepan filled with water and setting the second saucepan on top of the Mason jar bands. The trick is to nest one pan so it is raised off the bottom of the first pan. Heat slowly and keep on low heat for four to eight hours. Do not let the oil get hotter than 110 degrees F (a little hotter than bath water). Watch closely to make sure the water does not completely evaporate and/or the oil does not get too hot. You do not want deep fried herbs!

Straining Your Oils

After you have prepared the infused herbal oil the next step is to strain it through a muslin cloth, or a very tight weave of cheesecloth, into a glass jar. If the oil is slightly warm, it will be easier to strain. Place the cloth into a stainless-steel strainer and pour the oil/herb slurry over the cloth. After the oil ceases to run through the cloth squeeze the cloth with clean, dry hands to wring out any remaining oil from the herb. Add the lid when the oil cools to room temperature, and then label the jar. You are now ready to use the herbal infused oil to make a salve. Store any unused oil in the refrigerator to prolong its shelf life. Herbal infused oils will typically last two to three years when refrigerated.

Transforming Your Herbal Infused Oils into a Salve

Measure your oil into a double boiler and then bring it slowly up to 110 degrees F in the double boiler (see the notes above on making an improvised double boiler). For every four fluid ounces of oil, add one ounce grated or beaded beeswax by volume. For example, if you measure out eight fluid ounces of oil divide by four to determine the volume of beeswax needed. In this example, add two ounces of finely grated beeswax or beeswax beads. After years of tediously hand shaving beeswax, I am happy to buy the beeswax beads to eight ounces of herbal infused oil. Completely dissolve the beeswax into the oil and stir to mix the beeswax and oil together. To test the consistency of your salve, place a spoonful of the mixture into the freezer for two minutes, pull it out and test its hardness. Depending on the size of your beeswax shavings or beads, this recipe will make a softer salve. It’s easy enough to adjust the texture by adding more beeswax or more oil depending on the desired consistency.

Keep in mind that harder salves will be less likely to melt in a hot car or bag, but will be more difficult to apply. While your salve is still warm, and just before you pour, you can add any desired essential oil or oils. Alternately, you can create different batches by adding the essential oil directly into the salve jar after its poured. Just be prepared to add your essential oils quickly as the salve will begin to harden soon after you pour. I use a clean, dry chopstick to stir the essential oils thoroughly when I am using this method. Salves will typically last one to three years unrefrigerated. Refrigeration is not necessary but will prolong the shelf life. Vitamin E is often added to the salve mixture, right before it is poured into jars, as an anti-oxidant to prevent rancidity. For every ten ounces of oil, add two capsules of Vitamin E oil, or ½ teaspoon of liquid Vitamin E oil.

Note: Carnauba wax, extracted from the leaves of the Brazilian palm tree (Copernicia prunifera, Areaceae), may be substituted for beeswax for those wishing to avoid animal products. Carnauba wax is harder than beeswax, and has a higher melting point; it must be heated to a higher temperature than beeswax to melt. You may need to adjust your proportions as well.

I recommend using a rag or paper towel and cleaning the salve pot while the residual oil is still warm. Multiple cleanings with very hot water and soap will effectively do the job.

Appropriate Use of Oils and Salves

Covering a large expanse of the body in salve is often not desirable. Herbs used for widespread joint inflammation or injury are typically applied as an herbal infused oil via massage. Essential oils can be diluted directly into the herbal infused oil as needed. Examples of herbal oils that are often massaged into the skin are; Saint John’s wort, arnica (Arnica spp., Asteraceae), and poplar buds.

The beeswax in salve helps to prolong its application on the skin, in addition to holding in moisture. This quality is especially helpful when tissues are very dry or irritated. Oils tend to rub off quicker than salve and require more frequent application. Salves are also solid and are more convenient to transport than oil, which has the potential to spill or leak.

There are situations when the application of herbal oils and salves is not recommended. Oils and salves help to hold in moisture and heat and are contra-indicated in weepy skin conditions, infections and fresh burns. Avoid the use of oils and salves on poison ivy rashes, weepy eczema, pimples, boils, fresh sunburn, and fungal and bacterial skin infections. Instead, use herbal compresses, soaks, baths, or poultices, which are examples of water-based applications. Also, note that if oils are used as a sexual lubricant, they can degrade and break most condoms.

Traditional Topical Herbs and Their Uses

• Arnica (Arnica spp., Asteraceae) flowers and leaves are used to alleviate arthritic conditions and heal injuries, such as sprains, muscle strains, bruising, and bone breaks. Most arnica preparations sold in the store are homeopathic, but arnica prepared as an herbal infused oil is a very different medicine.  Arnica oil, herbal not homeopathic, should not be used on broken skin; cuts, abrasions, or bruises with scrapes, as it can be very irritating. Herbal arnica works as a rubefacient, which means it brings more blood flow to an injured or inflamed area.

• Calendula (Calendula officinalis, Asteraceae) flowers are used topically as a vulnerary, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory. Take care that you are using the whole dried flowers, as the medicinal resinous oils are found mostly in the involucres (the green base of the flower head). Sometimes calendula is sold as “petals,” only this is a weaker medicine for topical use. Calendula is used to speed the healing of rashes, burns, wounds, eczema, insect bites, chaffing and bruises. It is a common remedy for diaper rash and to heal sore cracked nipples from nursing, as it is safe for babies to ingest in small amounts.

• Chickweed (Stellaria media, Caryophyllaceae) leaves, stems and flowers are a cooling, soothing, anti-inflammatory and anti-itching herb. It is used to heal rashes, burns, eczema, insect bites and dry skin and lips.

• Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, Boraginaceae) root is one of the best herbs for promoting healing of damaged tissue. It can be used on bruises, breaks, cuts, sores, and sprains. The leaf is also medicinal but the root is much higher in allantoin (primary constituent that promotes tissue growth) and mucilage. Comfrey has many contra-indications when used internally; however, these contra-indications do not apply to topical use.

• Plantain (Plantago spp., Plantaginaceae) leaves are anti-inflammatory, demulcent, astringent, and vulnerary. Plantain is a common weed in lawns, fields and gardens. It should not be confused with the banana-like plantain fruit (Musa spp., Musaceae) of the tropics. Plantain is used topically on insect stings, spider bites, cuts, bruises, rashes, and burns. The leaves can typically be found throughout the year and used as a fresh poultice when needed.

• Poplar buds (Populus spp., Salicaceae) are the resinous early spring buds from various poplar tree species. Poplar buds are wonderfully sticky and aromatic, and a traditional remedy for burns and arthritic conditions. Balm of Gilead or balsam poplar (Populus x gileadensis, Salicaceae) is a traditional folk remedy of the Appalachian Mountains. The medicinal uses of the tree were so important that mountain folks simply called it the balm tree.

• Saint John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum and H. punctatum, Hypericaceae) flower clusters, which are comprised of flower buds and open flowers, are employed topically to heal burns and alleviate muscular inflammation.  It is used for sciatica, arthritis, pulled or strained muscles, sunburn and other burns after the initial heat has dissipated.

• Violet (Viola spp., Violaceae) leaves are cooling, anti-inflammatory and soothing. The leaves are emollient (mucilaginous) and sooth dry irritated skin conditions such as psoriasis, insect bites, chaffing, and abrasions.

• Yarrow (Achillea millefolium, Asteraceae) flowers and leaves are anti-microbial, astringent, anti-hemorrhagic and anti-inflammatory. Yarrow is used to help stop bleeding (a fresh herb or poultice is the most effective) and tighten inflamed and boggy tissues. Yarrow helps with bruising, spider veins, hemorrhoids, and varicose veins.

Biography:

Juliet Blankespoor is the director and primary instructor at the Chestnut School of Herbal Medicine where she teaches botany, plant identification, human anatomy and physiology, wild foods, and bioregional community herbalism. In addition, she cultivates a diverse herb garden and apothecary. Juliet also shares her plant obsession through her herbal articles and botanical photography in her blog Castanea at: http://blog.chestnutherbs.com/. To learn more about Juliet, and find links for supplies to make your own herbal infused oils, please visit: http://blog.chestnutherbs.com/links.

COMMON SKIN CONDITIONS

➙ Acne

Acne is caused by overactive or malformed sebaceous (oil) glands that become plugged with a mixture of oil and shedding skin cells, which prevents the oil from flowing out. Acne is often accompanied by inflammation and bacterial infections (by Corynebacterium acnes, Staphylococcus epidermidis). There are often contributing factors such as allergies, diet, certain medications, heredity, stress, cosmetics, illness, intestinal problems, or hormones.

Acne conditions include Pimples, pustules, cysts, blackheads, and abscesses.

**Individuals with acne may also suffer from emotional stress, lack of self-confidence, depression, anxiety, and other emotional states, which are either in reaction to or a potential contributing factor to the manifestation of acne. Addressing the individual’s emotions is equally important as it is the skin condition itself.

 Essential oils:

Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Frankincense (Boswellia carteri), Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Lemon (Citrus limon), Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) and Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia)

 Treatment approaches:

• Warm facial compresses, then mask.
• Face mask to tone and deep cleanse.
• Cleansing program twice to three times daily.
• Moisturize with a nourishing face cream.

Example aromatic program

Acne cleanser

• 2 ounces baby castille soap (Dr. Bronners)
• 1/2 ounce aloe vera gel
• 1 tbsp. lavender hydrosol
• 5 drops Tea tree essential oil
• 3 drops Roman chamomile essential oil
• 4 drops Lavender essential oil

Combine all ingredients and stir together. Place in a squeeze top PET plastic bottle or glass jar and use 2x a day, once in the morning and once before bed time.

Acne Toner

• 1 ounce Rose hydrosol
• 1 ounce Lavender hydrosol
• 2 tbsp. aloe vera gel

Combine ingredients in flip top container. Apply small amount to organic cotton pad and gently wipe face after using cleanser. Follow up with a cream or facial oil.

➙ Psoriasis

Psoriasis is noted when the skin has well-demarcated raised red patches or thickening of the skin caused by rapid cell division (up to 1000 times faster than normal skin cell division). The skin has the appearance of being scaly and dry, and it may itch and bleed. Psoriasis is thought to be caused by chemical or mechanical irritations, change of climate, genetic disposition or stress-related reactions. Psoriasis most often occurs around the elbows, knees, scalp, and back, although it can occur anywhere on the body. Stress tends to aggravate conditions of psoriasis.

Psoriasis is a particularly difficult condition to treat, and, not surprisingly, the more severe the symptoms, the more difficult it is to provide effective treatment.

However, she goes on to say that aromatherapists should not be deterred from attempting to address the distressing symptoms of psoriasis. Aromatherapy is used to provide relief of symptoms, reduce stress, and provide a supportive role to other natural therapies such as naturopathy or homeopathy.

Therapeutic goals:

• Reduce itching and/or inflammation
• Aid in healing the skin, avoiding scar formation
• Reduce stress

Essential oils: Roman chamomile, Cypress, Frankincense, Lavender, Patchouli, Vetiver, Ylang ylang

Base material: Shea butter, Calendula, Aloe vera gel with hydrosols of Lavender and German chamomile

Example Aromatic Program:

Psoriasis Soother

• 2 ounces concentrated aloe vera gelly or unscented cream base
• 1 tbsp. Lavender hydrosol
• 1 tbsp. Rose hydrosol
• 4 drops Roman chamomile essential oil
• 3 drops Ylang ylang essential oil
• 1-2 drops Patchouli essential oil

Stir all ingredients together. Store in glass container. Use at least 3 times a day or as needed.

Dry Psoriasis Salve

To make 2 ounces:

• 1/4 oz beeswax
• 1/8 cup Calendula herbal oil
• 1/8 cup Rose hip seed oil

Gently melt beeswax in double boiler. Just before all the beeswax is melted add in calendula herbal oil and rosehip seed oil. Remove from heat as soon as all beeswax is melted. Add in the following essential oils:

• 14 drops Lavender
• 7 drops Roman chamomile
• 10 drops Frankincense

➙ Canker sores

“Canker sores, also known as aphthous ulcers, are small sores that occur inside the mouth. You can get them on the tongue and on the inside of the cheeks and lips — the parts of the mouth that can move. They usually pop up alone, but sometimes they show up in small clusters.

Your mouth might tingle or burn before the actual sore appears. Soon, a small red bump rises. Then after a day or so it bursts, leaving an open, shallow white or yellowish wound with a red border. The sores are often painful and can be up to an inch across, although most of them are much smaller. Occasionally, someone who gets canker sores may also develop a fever and feel sluggish and uncomfortable.

The good news is that canker sores are not contagious like some other mouth sores, such as cold sores. You can’t spread canker sores by sharing food or kissing someone. Cold sores, however, are caused by the herpes simplex virus, which can pass from person to person. If you have a sore and you’re wondering if it’s of the cold or canker variety, just look at where it’s located. Cold sores usually appear outside the mouth, around the lips, chin, or nostrils. Canker sores, on the other hand, are always found inside the mouth”.

Essential oils: Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile)

Treatment approaches:

• Wash hands thoroughly, then place two drops of Geranium on index finger and apply to sore.
• Create an antiseptic wash with 1/2 witch hazel hydrosol, 1/2 distilled water and 10% dilution of chosen essential oils.

➙ Warts

Warts are a benign skin growth typically caused by a virus. Warts do not have ‘roots’ and do not grow down into other tissue. They tend to disappear on their own spontaneously. In Chinese medicine warts can be seen as blockages in energy flow. Warts tend to be found more often in our younger years and are most commonly found on the face, hands, elbows, and knees. Some forms of warts can be contagious. Folklore would suggest that the mind could affect the disappearance of warts.

Essential oils: Eucalyptus globulus, Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), Lemon (Citrus limon), Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens)

Treatment approaches:

• A single drop of any of these oils can be applied neat (undiluted) on the wart, avoiding the surrounding tissue, and then covered with a Band-Aid. This should be repeated daily until the wart disappears or falls off. If skin irritation should occur then discontinue the applications.

➙ Scars

Scars are marks left on the skin after healing from an injury or trauma or from surgery. When the skin has been wounded, fibroblast cells repair the tissue. Sometimes fewer collagen and elastic cells are present during the healing process and the result is skin that is firmer and less elastic. Old scars are difficult to change but can be improved with a diligent program. Using essential oils while the skin is healing can minimize or prevent scarring. The application of essential oils on old scar tissue can also lead to a healthier and loving relationship to the scar and its possible painful memory.

Essential oils: Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), Frankincense (Boswellia carteri), Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Patchouli (Pogostemum cablin), Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata)

Treatment Approaches:

• Create therapeutic oil by combining 50% jojoba oil with 50% calendula herbal infusion. To this oil add 10% of the following oils: Frankincense (Boswellia carteri), Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile)
• Spray area with Rose hydrosol then apply above oil. Apply 2-3 times a day.

Example Aromatic Program:

Soothing skin salve

(Makes 2 ounces)

Create a therapeutic skin salve utilizing:

• 1/4 ounce beeswax
• 1/8 cup jojoba oil
• 1/8 cup calendula herbal infusion

Per 50ml/2oz jar add:

• 14 drops Frankincense
• 6 drops Roman chamomile essential oil
• 14 drops Lavender essential oil

Follow directions for making salve in Module 7: Methods of Application.

➙ Sunburn

Sunburn is caused by over exposure to the ultraviolet rays of the sun. The effects can range from slight reddening and tenderness to painful blisters, swelling, and inflammation.

Treatment Approaches:

• Calendula is often the first oil to be thought of where sun-care is concerned. A common combination is to blend Jojoba and Calendula with a 2.5% dilution of roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and frankincense (Boswellia carteri).
• Take a cool shower, then afterwards while still WET, massage the above oil into the skin.
• Throughout the day, utilize a cooling facial/body spritzer with 1/2 lavender hydrosol, 1/2 orange flower water.

Essential oils: Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), Frankincense (Boswellia carteri)

Example Aromatic program: Sunburn gel

• 2 ounces aloe vera gelly
• 1 tbsp. German chamomile hydrosol
• 1 tbsp. Lavender hydrosol
• 5 drops Lavender essential oil
• 3 drops Roman chamomile essential oil

Combine all ingredients and store in glass jar. Apply to skin as needed.

Ginger

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Watch Presentation on Ginger with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: Ginger
Scientific name: Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Botanical family: Zingiberaceae
Conservation status: Data deficient¹

Description: Ginger is an herbaceous perennial in the Zingiberaceae family endemic to Southeast Asia. The plant is widely cultivated in tropical regions throughout the world, including the Caribbean, Central and South America, Australia, and Africa. Z. officinale thrives in well-drained, loamy soils in hot, humid conditions.

Ginger is characterized by its robust subterranean rhizome, and one or more leafy aerial stems, which grow up to 1.25 meters tall. The aromatic rhizome is fleshy, pale yellow to reddish in color, irregularly branched, up to 2 cm thick, and grows horizontally at a shallow depth. The stem is erect, unbranched, and primarily formed by pale green leaf sheaths, typically reddish at the base.

The name “Zingiber” is derived from the Greek word zingiberis, taken from the Sanskrit shringavera, which means “shaped like a deer’s antlers”.²

Ethnobotany: Ginger has a long history of use as food, spice, and medicine. The rhizome has been used as an appetizer, carminative, and stomachic. It is valued for its analgesic, antirheumatic, anti-phlegmatic, diuretic and aphrodisiac properties. Ginger has been used as a remedy for asthma, bronchitis, piles, and gastrointestinal ailments including eructation, vomiting, flatulence, constipation, and ascites. Ginger is applied topically to boils and enlarged glands. It’s thought to improve memory, remove obstructions in the blood vessels, relieve incontinence, and tone the nervous system.³

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Sri Lanka, China, India, Nigeria
Part of plant used: Rhizome – Unpeeled rhizome will result in higher oil yield
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 1 – 3%
Color of oil: Clear to light amber; Oil becomes thicker with age and exposure to air

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Seventy-two+ unique components make up 92.3% of Zingiber officinale essential oil.⁵ There is significant variation in the chemistry of Zingiber officinale essential depending on country of origin, environment, etc. and whether fresh or dried ginger root is used. The fresh ginger is considered to be a distinct commodity from dry ginger, which is, in its own right, a commodity.⁶ The age of the root when harvested along with method of drying can also affect its chemical composition.

Forty-nine to seventy-one+ unique components make up 95.9 to 96.6% respectively of the essential oil of ginger from dried roots. Over 200 components have been identified, with many of these components at less then 0.01%. The core components of ginger essential oil include: ⍺-zingiberene (17.4-42.2%), ar-curcumene (5.6-18%), sabinene (8.7%), (E-E)-a-farnesene (3.4-10%), and β-sesquiphellandrene (8.8-11.3%).

Monoterpenes: ⍺-pinene (2.2-3%), camphene (6.3-22.8%), limonene (0.7%), β-phellandrene (0.4-9.1%), sabinene (0.1-8.7%), myrcene (0.9-14%), delta-3-carene (0.1%)
Aldehydes: neral (2.6-9.1%), geranial (3.3-25.9%)
Esters: geranyl acetate (1-8.3%)
Ether: 1,8 cineole (2.7-3.6%)
Monoterpenol: linalool (0.08%)
Sesquiterpenes: ⍺-zingiberene (17.4-42.2%), β-elemene (1-1.7%), β-bisabolene (4.9-11.3%), (E-E)-a-farnesene (3.4- 10.52%), β-sesquiphellandrene (6.7-27.16%), ar-curcumene (5.6-12.2%), y-cadinene (3.1%), and β-caryophyllene (15.29%)^7,8,9,10,11

Fresh ginger root essential oil is similar to the dried root essential oil with variations of many of major and minor components.

Zingiber officinale dried root (San Carlos area Costa Rica): Rich in neral (20.11%), geranial (27.42), and 1,8 cineole (13.35%). Other components include: Monoterpenes: camphene (4.65%), β-myrcene (1.3%), limonene (1.2%); Aldehydes: geranyl acetate (2.17%); Sesquiterpenes: ⍺-zingerberene (1.58%); Monoterpenols: geraniol (3.92%), β-citronellol (1.93%), borneol (1.73%), ⍺-terpineol (2.24%), linalool (2.12%); Ethers: limonene oxide (1.54%)¹²

What components make ginger hot?

The two pungent principals found in Zingiber officinale include shogoals (found in dry ginger) gingerol (found in fresh ginger). These components are extracted via ethanol and via co2 extraction, respectively. They are not present in the essential oil. Ginger CO2 extract can be manipulated based upon time (sample pulled 30 minutes after start versus sample extracted at end of extraction – total time 3 hours). The CO2 extract of ginger may contain 1.29% to 80.71% 6-gingerol, 31.18 to 6.91% a-zingiberene, 12.47 to 2.01% farnesene, and 8.83 to 2.68% b-sesuiphellandrene, respectively.¹³ It is the presence of gingerol which makes the co2 feel hot to warming when applied to the skin.

SAFETY INFORMATION

• GRAS status.
• None known concerns or contraindications.

Herbal Insight:

• Average daily doses of tea with ginger: 2g dried
• Individuals with gall bladder disease should avoid using ginger (tea, tincture, capsule, etc.).¹⁴

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Digestive, Musculoskeletal, Respiratory

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Warming, spicy
Blending factor: 4
Note: Base note
Blends well with: Neroli, clove bud, black pepper, rose (Rosa alba), turmeric, angelica root, spikenard, cardamom, clary sage, sweet marjoram, plai, yuzu, sweet fennel, jasmine, grapefruit, ylang ylang, coriander seed, lemongrass, may chang
Substitutions: Black pepper, cardamom, spearmint

CORE INDICATIONS

• Circulatory system: poor circulation, cold hands or feet (C+++, Fb+++, O+)
• Digestive system: stomachache, nausea, vomiting, morning sickness, excess gas, constipation or diarrhea, postoperative or drug-induced nausea¹⁷, loss of appetite (O+++, C+++, I+++)
• Musculoskeletal system: muscular aches and pains, arthritis, sprains, rheumatism, joint pain and stiffness, warming (C+++, Fb++)
• Nervous system: nervous exhaustion, debility, neuralgia (C+++, I+++, Fb+)
• Reproductive/endocrine systems: lack of or reduced sex drive, impotence, menstrual cramps and pain, morning sickness (inhalation), amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea¹⁸ (C+++, I+++, D+)
• Respiratory system: catarrh, bronchitis, congestion, common cold, chronic bronchitis, warms the lungs (O+++, C+++, I+++, Si++)
• Psyche/emotion: indecisiveness, confusion, loss of motivation, psychological burnout caused by chronic stress, sexual anxieties, lack of direction, lack of focus, apathy, feelings of loneliness, and resignation¹⁹, lack of clarity in the mind, poor memory, foggy thinking (I+++, D+++, C+++)

RESEARCH

Human Studies

• A 5% solution of the essential oil of Zingiber officinale essential oil in grape seed carrier oil, when applied naso-cutaneously, was found to be effective in the treatment of nausea after surgery. It exhibits anti-emetic activity.²²

Animal Studies

• Ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oil exhibits immunomodulatory effects.²³
• Ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oil exhibits antispasmodic activity.²⁴
• Ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oil exhibits anti-nociceptive (peripheral analgesic) and anti-inflammatory activity. This study used a 2% dilution of ginger essential oil (rich in a-zingiberene and supported by camphene, a-pinene, b-bisabolene, and b-sesquiphellandrene) applied to the right hind paw of rat after it hand been injected with a substance designed to cause inflammation and pain. The 2% dilution was found to be effective at reducing inflammation and pain.²⁵

In Vitro Studies

• Ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oil exhibits antifungal and moderate antioxidant activity.²⁶
• Ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oil exhibits antibacterial activity.^27,28
• Ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oil exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive properties.²⁹
• Turmeric (Curcuma longa) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oils exhibit gastroprotective activity.³⁰
• Ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oil exhibits antioxidant activity.³¹

Sweet Fennel

Foeniculum vulgare P. Mill. var. dulce

Watch: About Fennel with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Common fennel, sweet fennel
Scientific name: Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Synonym: Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce (Mill.) Batt. & Trab.
Botanical family: Apiaceae
Conservation status: Least concern¹

Description: Fennel is an upright branching perennial herb in the Apiaceae family native to the southern Mediterranean. The plant typically grows from 3-5’ tall, and is characterized by aromatic yellow-green leaves that are soft, feathery, and compound with fine thread-like segments. The flowers are tiny and yellow, clustered in large, flattened, compound umbels. Flowers bloom mid to late summer, and are succeeded by aromatic seeds. Fennel grows easily in moist, organically rich well-drained soils, in full sun.

Ethnobotany: Fennel is a common culinary ingredient valued for its anise-flavored leaves and seeds. The genus name Foeniculum arises from the Latin name for this traditional salad and potherb which, in Italian, is called finocchio.²

Fennel is naturalized throughout much of the world, and was well-known to the ancient Egyptians, Romans, Indians, and Chinese. The Romans cultivated the plant for its aromatic seeds, and the edible fleshy shoots remain a popular vegetable in southern Italy. Charlemagne reportedly encouraged the cultivation of fennel in central Europe.

The leaves produce a natural light green dye that has been used in cosmetics, textiles/wooden materials, and as a food colorant.

Fennel also has a long history of use in medicine. The seeds were traditionally used to freshen the breath, and as a digestive aid. Fennel has been used to treat gastrointestinal ailments, conjunctivitis, arthritis, fever, kidney ailments, liver pain, and mouth ulcers.³

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: France, Spain, Germany
Part of plant used: Seeds
Extraction method: Distillation of crushed seeds
Essential oil yield: 1-4%
Color of oil: Pale yellow, clear

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Eighteen components make up 99.8% of the essential oil of sweet fennel. Core components include: trans-anethole (46.26+%), limonene (27.78%) and fenchone (12.77%). Other components include:

Monoterpenes: ⍺-pinene (3.26%), camphene (0.3%), sabinene (0.27%), β-pinene (0.14%), myrcene (0.66%), ⍺-phellandrene (0.18%), p-cymene (0.38%), limonene (27.78%), -terpinene (0.06%)
Ethers: 1,8 cineole (0.9%)
Monoterpene alcohols: linalool (0.09%)
Aldehyde: p-anisaldehyde (0.11%), fenchyl acetate (0.06%), cumic aldehyde (0.06%)
Ketone: fenchone (12.77%)
Phenylpropanoid: estragole (6.34%)⁴

**This is the chemical composition for the cultivar, dulce. Sweet fennel essential oil (Foeniculum vulgare), not the dulce cultivar, is rich is trans-anethole (upwards of 83%) and less then 5% of limonene, fenchone, ⍺-pinene, estragole and b-myrcene.

SAFETY INFORMATION

• Contraindications: Due to its trans-anethole content, fennel essential oil should be avoided by any route (method of application) in pregnancy, breastfeeding, endometriosis, and estrogen dependent cancers.⁵ Trans-anethole exhibits estrogenic actions.
• Oral dosing is cautioned in conjunction with anticoagulant drugs, major surgery, childbirth, peptic ulcer, hemophilia or other bleeding disorders.⁶
• GRAS status

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Digestive, Respiratory, Reproductive and Endocrine

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Aniseedy, spicy, warm, sweet, like licorice
Blending factor: 3-4
Note: Mid note
Blends well with: Clary sage, sweet marjoram, cardamom, mandarin, ginger, ylang ylang, cinnamon leaf, coriander seed, grapefruit, geranium, black pepper,  carrot seed, rose, anise (Pimpinella anisum), plai, spearmint
Substitutions: Carrot seed, anise, tarragon, black pepper, ginger

CORE INDICATIONS

• Digestive system: colic, indigestion, excess gas, constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, nausea, lack of or decreased appetite, abdominal pain, indigestion, nonspecific colitis⁷ (O+++, RS+++, C++, I+++ (* e.g. Nausea, appetite), Fb+)
• Musculoskeletal system: muscle spasms or cramps, general muscular aches and pains (C+++)
• Reproductive and Endocrine systems: balancing to hormones, PMS, dysmenorrhea⁸, amenorrhea, lack of or reduced sexual drive, lack of or reduced milk flow in lactating woman (fennel tea is indicated or inhalation of fennel e/o), cramps, menopause, perimenopause (C+++, O+++, I+++, Fb+)
• Respiratory system: bronchitis, coughs, flu, asthma, lung congestion (O+++, RS++, I+++, SI+++)
• Skin: sluggish, congested, or smoker’s skin (can be beneficial for stimulating microcirculation and detoxification), cellulite, spasmodic cough, fennel hydrosol may be utilized in compresses for conjunctivitis (C+++)
• Psyche/emotion: feelings of being stuck, unexpressed thoughts or emotions, tension, fear or inhibition of expressing self, creative blocks (I+++, D+++)
  ________________

Ayurveda: The seeds, according to Ayurveda, are sweet and pungent in taste, cooling, and are good for all doshas: vata, pitta, and kapha. In Ayurvedic medicine fennel seeds are used to support digestion, strengthening Agni without aggravating Pitta. Like its Western herbal applications, fennel is used to stop cramping and dispel flatulence (gas). Fennel seed preparations are indicated for digestive weakness.

In Ayurvedic medicine Fennel is indicated for: digestive discomfort, flatulence, cramps, nausea and low agni. A specific for inguinal hernias and lower abdominal pain. It is also indicated for nervous tension in mamsa dhatu and contraction in the smooth muscle system restricts the flow of vata. It has a nourishing effect on majja dhatu tonifies the brain and nervous system. Fennel is useful in vata-kapha obstruction type coughs and helps to clear phlegm by reducing aggravated avalambaka kapha that congest the alveoli and bronchioles. Useful in menstrual difficulty caused by vata and kapha obstruction in the lower abdomen with pain, cramps, and a dragging sensation.⁹

RESEARCH

Human Studies

• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) essential oil proves beneficial for the treatment of dysmenorrhea.
  In a placebo controlled double blind clinical study designed to explore the clinical effectiveness of Foeniculum vulgare essential oil for the treatment of primary dysmenorrhea, fennel essential oil was able to significantly reduce pain. The study involved 50 girls aged 15-24 years old. Participants were divided into two groups: one received a capsule of 30 mg fennel essential oil to take four times a day for three days from start of their menstrual period. The placebo group received a capsule containing wheat flour in same dose. The study concluded that the use of fennel essential oil could be beneficial in significantly reducing the signs and symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea.¹⁰
• The Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research published a 2003 clinical trial reporting that fennel essential oil (FEO) decreased menstrual pain in those with primary dysmenorrhea. In this randomized double-blind study 60 individuals were treated with placebo, 1%, or 2% FEO in a three-period crossover design. Presumably this essential oil was taken internally, but the authors don’t explicitly state their method of treatment application, using only the word “administered” to describe their method of application. We only know that a dose of 0.3-1 ml was taken starting with the onset of pain “as needed.” Pain, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, mood, and faintness were measured with a symptom chart. In the placebo group, 66.7% of patients required other medication to relieve symptoms compared to 41.8% of patients in the 1% FEO-treated group and 39.9% in the 2% FEO treated group. Pain scores were significantly reduced following FEO treatment compared to placebo, but there was no effect on other symptoms.¹¹

Animal Studies

• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) essential oil demonstrated hepatoprotective activity.
  Foeniculum vulgare essential oil exhibited potent hepatoprotective activity against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis in rats.¹²
• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) essential oil reduces uterine contractions and may be beneficial for dysmenorrhea.¹³

In Vitro Studies

• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) essential oil has anti-inflammatory activity.¹⁴
• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) essential oil exhibits antioxidant activity.¹⁵
• Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) essential oil exhibits gastroprotective, vasorelaxant and antithrombotic activity.¹⁶

Food for Thought

Fennel fruit, estragole and the breast feeding mother

by David Hoffmann B.Sc., FNIMH

Learn how to pronounce the Latin names (binomials) of Essential Oils