The School of Aromatic Studies

The School for Aromatic Studies

Foundations of Essential Oil Therapy

Eucalyptus radiata

Eucalyptus, Narrow leafed peppermint

Eucalyptus radiata

Eucalyptus_radiata2

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: Narrow-leaf peppermint gum
Scientific name: Eucalyptus radiata Sieber ex DC
Botanical family: Myrtaceae
Conservation status: Not defined

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of Origin: Australia, Spain
Part of Plant Used: Leaves and mature branches
Extraction Method: Distillation
Oil Content: 3.5-6% from fresh foliage and twigs
<1.5% from dry material
Color of Oil: Clear to pale yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Chemical Feature: Rich in oxides (up to 74% 1,8 cineole), supported by monoterpenes and monoterpene alcohols.

SAFETY INFORMATION

  • Caution for children: Avoid application of 1,8 cineole-rich essential oils to the face or near the nose of infants and children under age of 5. Do not instill 1,8 cineole-rich essential oils into the nose of infants or children. Use low dilutions (less then 1%).
  • Internal contraindication: Essential oils rich in 1,8 cineole should not be used with infants or young children via the internal route (oral, rectal suppositories, etc.)

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

Analgesic, antibacterial , anticatarrhal, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-infective, antirheumatic, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, respiratory antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, antiviral, decongestant, expectorant, febrifuge, insecticide, mucolytic, rubefacient, stimulant

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Respiratory

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Fresh, peppery-camphoraceous
Blending factor: 4
Notes: Top
Blends well with: Peppermint, rosemary chemotypes, Spanish sage, Lavandula latifolia, grapefruit, lemon, Pinus spp., juniper, lemongrass, niaouli

CORE INDICATIONS

  • Circulatory system: stimulating
  • Immune System: Lowered immunity, loss of energy, asthenia (physical or emotional), immune deficiency, chronic fatigue
  • Musculoskeletal system: muscular aches and pains, arthritis, rheumatism, plantar fasciitis, sprains, neuralgia
  • Respiratory system: chronic bronchitis, acute bronchitis, sinusitis, asthma, antiseptic qualities good for sore throat and infections, upper respiratory tract infection, ear infections, mucus cough, laryngitis, clears the head especially when used with rosemary and peppermint, nasal congestion, coughs, cold, flu, pertussis, thins bronchial sputum. Eucalyptus radiata is very much used with children here in France, it is referred to as the Eucalyptus for sensitive people, the elderly, and asthmatics. I have seen it on many occasions put an end to the beginning of a cold, tonsillitis, or flu if the person is treated at the very first signs of illness.
  • Skin: herpes simplex3, shingles, chickenpox, measles, acne, ulcers, wounds, boils, oily skin
  • Psyche and Emotion: energizing, awakening, uplifting, refreshing, can have a “cooling” emotional effect, clears and stimulates the mind, aids concentration, good for exhaustion, balancing when there is an energy imbalance, purifying and cleansing to negative energies, especially after an argument

According to Schnaubelt (2011), Eucalyptus radiata reflects the whole organism and is dramatically different from E. globulus (which is typically rectified) and more complex. E. radiata has strong antiviral activity.4

  • Energetics: Energizing without being overly stimulating, helps one think clearly and get on with projects. It has a protective aspect and is sometimes used to clear people and spaces of negativity.

Sample Aromatic Treatment for Herpes Simplex

by Ron Guba (2009)

  • Eucalyptus radiata 2ml
  • Melaleuca alternifolia 2ml
  • Mentha x piperita 0.5ml
  • Cymbopogon flexuosus 0.5ml

Mix into 5ml of Calophyllum vegetable oil. This is an aromatic vegetable oil noted for its antiviral properties. This blend is a 50% concentration of essential oils. Should there be any skin irritation, add another 5 to 10mls of Calophyllum oil.

Apply a small amount to the affected area, at least three times per day, up to every two hours. Continue application until the herpes sore has resolved.

Research note: Both tea tree and eucalyptus have been found to exhibit antiviral activity against the Herpes Simplex virus.5

Experiential Exercise

As you learn about each essential oil, take your time to complete the essential-oil-exercise. Create a notebook to keep you essential oil data sheets in along with your own form. Experiment combining the essential oils with some of the others in the course. This is a great experiential exercise to reinforce your learning of each individual essential oil.

 

Eucalyptus globulus

Eucalyptus, Blue Gum

Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

 

Watch Presentation on Eucalyptus with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Blue gum, blue mallee, eucalyptus
Scientific name: Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Botanical family: Myrtaceae
Conservation status: Least concern1

Description: Eucalyptus globulus also known as the southern blue gum, is a large evergreen tree in the Myrtaceae family native to Tasmania. This tree varies in size from 20 meters to 70-80 meters tall. The lower bark is rough and greyish/brownish, the upper bark is smooth, pale with a bluish or yellowish tinge, and peels into long strips. The tree has a single trunk with many branches. In harsh, exposed sites, E. globulus grows as a many-stemmed shrub.

Southern blue gum is found in Tasmania, southern Victoria, and is invasive in California and Hawaii. The tree thrives in regions with a Mediterranean climate marked by warm dry summers and cool wet winters. In California, the Tasmanian blue gum prefers disturbed areas, hillsides, and coasts below altitudes of 300 meters.

Ethnobotany: Tasmanian blue gum is commonly planted as a hedge or screen, and as an ornamental in parks and gardens. The wood is used in paper manufacture, and plantation-grown trees are used for pulpwood. The essential oil, derived from the leaves and shoots, is used medicinally, in perfumery, and in insect repellents.2

E. globulus has been valued in traditional medicine for its antiseptic and antimalarial properties. The oil was used as a stimulant and antiseptic gargle, and an emulsion of the oil and powdered gum-arabic in water has been taken internally for pulmonary tuberculosis, bronchitis, and other infectious diseases of the lungs.3

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Australia, South Africa
Part of plant used: Leaves and mature branches
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 1-3% w/w
Color of oil: Pale yellow to clear

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Fourteen+ components make up 99.77% of the essential oil of Eucalyptus globulus. The core component is: 1,8 cineole (72.71-85.82%). Other components include:

Monoterpenes: a-pinene (4.15-9.22), b-pinene (0.4-1.1%), camphene (t-), myrcene (1.52%), a-phellandrene (0.55%), p-cymene (t-2.93%), limonene (0.85-8.16%), y-terpinene (1.16%), a-terpinene (0.11%), sabinene (0.25%), terpinolene (0.19%)
Monoterpenols: linalool (0.24-0.43%), pinocarveol (0.44%), terpinen-4-ol (0.34-0.49%), α-terpineol (0.14-2.54%)
Sesquiterpenols: globulol (2.77%), epiglobulol (0.44%), b-eudesmol (0.38%)
Esters: a-terpineol acetate (3.1%), geranyl acetate (0.71%)
Ethers (oxide): 1,8 cineole (72.71-85.82%)4,5,6

SAFETY INFORMATION

  • Caution for children: Avoid application of 1,8 cineole-rich essential oils to the face or near the nose of infants and children under age of 5. Do not instill 1,8 cineole-rich essential oils into the nose of infants or children. Use low dilutions (less then 1%).
  • Internal contraindication: Essential oils rich in 1,8 cineole should not be used with infants or young children via the internal route (oral, rectal suppositories, etc.)

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SystemAction
Respiratory system:anticatarrhal, respiratory antiseptic, antitussive, decongestant, expectorant, mucolytic
Musculoskeletal system:analgesic7, antirheumatic rubefacient
Immune system:anti-infective8, febrifuge
General:antibacterial9,10,11, antifungal, anti-inflammatory12,13, antimicrobial14, antispasmodic, antiviral, insecticide, stimulant

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Respiratory

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Strong, camphor like, balsamic, fresh
Blending factor: 1 – 5
Note: Top note
Blends well with: Other eucalyptus oils, Laurel, Rosemary ct. cineole or camphor, Lavandula latifolia, Lavender, Cardamom, Peppermint, Green myrtle, Rosalina, Ravintsara, Pinus pinaster, Pinus sylvestris, Lemon, Tea tree

Substitutions: Rosemary ct. cineole, Eucalyptus radiata, Eucalyptus polybractea, Laurel, Eucalyptus dives, Niaouli, Myrtle ct. cineole, Ravintsara ct. cineole

CORE INDICATIONS

  • Circulatory system: poor circulation (C+++)
  • Digestive system: Diarrhea (caused by viral infection), intestinal parasites, candidiasis/thrush15 (O+++)
  • Musculoskeletal system: muscular aches and pains, arthritis, rheumatism, plantar fasciitis, sprains (C+++)
  • Respiratory system: chronic bronchitis, acute bronchitis, sinusitis, rhinitis, rhino-pharyngitis, asthma, antiseptic qualities good for sore throat and infections, laryngitis, clears the head especially when used with rosemary and peppermint, nasal congestion, coughs, cold, flu, pertussis, thins bronchial sputum (O+++, SI+++, RS+, D+++, I+++)
  • Skin: herpes simplex16, shingles, chickenpox, measles, acne, ulcers, wounds, mycotic infections, boils, burns, cuts (C+++)
  • Psyche/emotion: uplifting, refreshing, can have a “cooling” emotional effect, clears and stimulates the mind, aids concentration, good for exhaustion, balancing when there is an energy imbalance, purifying and cleansing to negative energies, especially after an argument (I+++, D+++, C+++)
    __________________
  • Ayurveda: Useful for Kapha excess conditions presenting as mucus or lethargy. Eucalyptus globulus has a pungent rasa and vipaka. In moderate does it is cooling, but it is heating in large quantity. Pacifies vata and kapha, it primarily acts on the lungs and sinuses (decongesting and bronchodilator). Eucalyptus has a cooling effect on the surface of the skin, but is heating on the mucus lining.17
  • Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM): Eucalyptus is unparalleled in its ability to clear Lung-Phlegm for TCM work and as a general tonic to Lung-Qi; is suited to the individual who feels emotionally “hemmed-in” or constricted by their surroundings and can help to provide “room to breathe”.
    _________________

RESEARCH

  • Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) essential oil exhibited strong bactericidal and anti-inflammatory activities. The essential oil is also an expectorant and stimulates bronchial secretions.18
  • Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) essential oil is thought to increase the motility of the cilia, thus explaining the expectorant effect of this oil.19
  • Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) essential oil exhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activities.20 Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the principal enzyme involved in the hydrolysis of acetylcholine (ACh).

Human Studies

  • Inhalation of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) essential oil reduces pain in patients after total knee replacement surgery.
    Eucalyptus oil was dissolved at a concentration of 3% (v/v) in almond oil. In experimental group, eucalyptus oil (dissolved in almond oil) was placed onto a 4 × 2-inch gauze pad, which was positioned between the nose and philtrum (a vertical groove in the middle area of the upper lip) and inhaled for 30 minutes on 3 consecutive days, beginning on the third day after surgery for total knee replacement (TKR). Individuals in the eucalyptus group experienced a reduction in subjective pain and blood pressure after surgery. These findings suggest that the inhalation of eucalyptus oil might be a valuable nursing intervention for pain relief after TKR.21
  • **Note: The majority of human studies have been performed using isolated 1,8 cineole. This will be covered in the lesson on oxides.

Animal Studies

  • Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) leaves taken internally showed a considerable inhibitory effect on the growth of Candida albicans in both normal and diabetic rats.22
  • Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) essential oil demonstrated analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity.23
  • Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) essential oil exhibits strong antibacterial activity, and in combination with tea tree and grapefruit essential oils was successfully used treat the malodor of necrotic ulcers in 25 patients.24
  • Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) essential oil exhibits ability to control sebum production by reducing size of sebaceous glands in rats and therefore may be useful in the treatment of acne.25

In Vitro Studies

  • Eucalyptus globulus essential oil exhibits antibacterial activity against isolated from respiratory infections such as: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, S. pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae, H. parainfluenzae, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia.26
  • Eucalyptus globulus essential oil is able to stimulate innate cell-mediated immune response. Researchers summarized that eucalyptus has the potential for being an immune-regulatory agent with potential applications for immuno-suppressive pathologies as well as infectious diseases.27
  • Eucalyptus globulus essential oil exhibited anti-candidal activity and inhibited filamentation of these fungi.28
  • Eucalyptus globulus essential oil exhibits antiviral activity against the herpes simplex virus.29

 

Cinnamon, Bark

Cinnamon Bark

Cinnamomum verum J. Presl

Watch: About Cinnamon Bark with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Ceylon cinnamon, cinnamon
Scientific name: Cinnamomum verum J.Presl
Synonyms: Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume syn. Laurus cinnamomum L.
Botanical family: Lauraceae
Conservation status: Not defined

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Sri Lanka, Java, Madagascar, E. Indies, Jamaica, Africa
Part of plant used: Bark
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 1 – 4%
Color of oil: Pale yellow to brownish yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Thirty to thirty-eight+ unique components make up cinnamon bark essential oil. The core component is: cinnamic aldehyde syn. cinnamaldehyde (50.5-67.57%).

Other core components include:
Monoterpenes: ⍺-pinene (3.34-5.76%), camphene (0.63%), β-pinene (0.61%), sabinene (0.26%),
⍺-phellandrene (0.14%), myrcene (1.38-2.7%), ⍺-terpinene (1.3%), limonene (1.2%), (z)-β-ocimene (0.14%), -terpinene (0.16%), (e)-β-ocimene (0.13%), p-cymene (1.91%), terpinolene (0.21%)
Sesquiterpenes: β-caryophyllene (3.66-8%), ⍺-humulene (1.3%), ⍺-ylangene (0.7%)
Monoterpenols: linalool (1-6%), nerol (1.06%), terpinen-4-ol (0.4%), ⍺-terpineol (0.7%)
Esters: cinnamyl acetate (4.23-8.78%), benzyl benzoate (1.-1.16%)
Phenylpropanoids: eugenol (4.15-7.5%), cinnamaldehyde (45.13-75%)
Ethers (oxides): 1,8 cineole (4.6%)1,2,3

SAFETY INFORMATION

  • Do not use cinnamon bark essential oil in steam inhalations or personal inhaler due to potential irritation of respiratory mucosa.
  • The rectal route (suppository) should be used with caution and very low dilutions (less then 1/2 to 1 drop per 2 gm suppository) due to potential irritation of the rectal mucosa.
  • Do not use via vaginal suppositories due to potential irritation of vaginal tissue.
  • Atmospheric diffusion is not recommended, except possibly very minor in a mixture based on lemon, tangerine or orange essences.
  • According to Schnaubelt, cinnamon bark should not be applied externally.4 The cutaneous route tends not to be recommended unless diluted down sufficiently to avoid irritation. Cinnamon bark is dermacaustic and it’s use dermally should be avoided, particularly when the skin is sensitive or fragile.
  • Internal use caution: Individuals diagnosed with a peptic ulcer or esophageal reflux5 should avoid internal use.
  • Medication alert: Potential drug interaction. Individuals on diabetes medication or anticoagulant medications; or who are about to undergo major surgery should avoid the internal use of cinnamon bark essential oil as it may inhibit blood clotting.6
  • Individuals who have hemophilia or other bleeding disorders should also avoid the internal use of cinnamon bark essential oil.
  • Dermal caution: Cinnamon bark contains cinnamic aldehyde, eugenol, and low amounts of benzyl benzoate. These components belong to the 26 fragrance allergens in the European Union. These components may cause sensitization to occur when using cinnamon bark on the skin.
  • Pregnancy caution: It is recommended to avoid the use of cinnamon bark via all routes during pregnancy and while breastfeeding.7
  • Maximum recommended adult daily oral dose: 200 mg (approx. 6-10 drops depending on orifice reducer or pipette)
  • GRAS status.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

Analgesic, antibacterial (broad spectrum)8, antifungal9, antimicrobial (broad spectrum), antispasmodic, antioxidant, antiparasitic10, antiviral, aphrodisiac, carminative, digestive, escharotic, stimulant

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Digestive

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: warm-woody, spicy, sweet aroma
Blending factor: 1
Note: Mid note, mid to base
Blends well with:  cinnamon leaf, clove bud, thyme ct. linalool, thyme ct. thymol, Origanum compactum, niaouli, rosemary ct. verbenone or 1,8 cineole, ylang ylang,  green myrtle
Substitutions:  Cinnamon leaf, thyme ct. thymol

CORE INDICATIONS

  • Digestive system: Acute bacterial infections of the intestinal tract11, colitis, diarrhea, dyspepsia, flatulence, intestinal infections, sluggish digestion, worms (O+++, Sp+++)
  • Respiratory system: acute lower respiratory infections (O+++, Sp+++)

Kurt Schnaubelt offers the following recommendations for Cinnamon bark:

  1. 1 drop on a sugar cube, once every two hours, for acute tropical infections.
  2. For intestinal infections: 1 drop cinnamon bark in olive oil or hazelnut capsule or 1 drop cinnamon bark, 1 drop oregano (Origanum compactum) in olive oil or hazelnut capsule. Kurt recommend during the acute phase: 1 capsule every hour.
  3. Another option for the forceful element of an anti-infectious suppository blend is to integrate Cinnamon leaf or Cinnamon bark. The suggested concentration is at the equivalent of 1 drop each per suppository; the remainder of the blend should consist of mild essential oils.13,14

Marjoram, Sweet

Sweet Marjoram

Origanum majorana L.


 

Watch: About Sweet Marjoram with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: Sweet Marjoram
Scientific name: Origanum majorana L.
Botanical family: Lamiaceae
Conservation status: Not defined

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: France, Germany, Egypt
Part of plant used: Flowering tops
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 0.2 – 1%
Color of oil: Pale yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Over 50 individual components have been identified in Origanum majorana. Major components include: terpinen-4-ol and cis-sabinene hydrate supported by monoterpenes. Chemotypes of O. majorana are known to occur, specifically ct. thymol, ct. carvacrol, and ct. terpinen-4-ol.1

Monoterpenes: α-terpinene (2.75-12.72%), -terpinene (6.89-18.57%), sabinene (2.40-4.94%), p-cymene (7.01%)
Monoterpene alcohol: terpinen-4-ol (27.30-46%), a-terpineol (3.7-8.8%)
Esters: cis-sabinene hydrate (14.95-30.2%), linalyl acetate2,3,4,5

** The bicyclic monoterpenes, cis-sabinene hydrate and cis-sabinene hydrate acetate, are considered to be responsible for the unique flavor of marjoram (Origanum majorana L.).6 Cis-sabinene hydrate is also considered to be one of the components responsible for the antibacterial activity of O. majorana.7

SAFETY INFORMATION

  • GRAS status.
  • None known concerns.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

Analgesic8, anaphrodisiac, powerful antibacterial9,10, antifungal11, antimicrobial, antioxidant12,13, antiseptic, antispasmodic, anxiolytic14, carminative, hypotensive15, nervine, sedative, neurotonic (parasympathetic nervous system)

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Digestive, Respiratory, Female Reproductive, Musculoskeletal, Skin

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Spicy, herbaceous
Blending factor: 3
Note: Base to mid
Blends well with: Cypress, palo santo, Roman chamomile, spikenard, melissa, clary sage, lavender, blue tansy, angelica root, bergamot, katrafay, rosemary ct. verbenone, Lavandula latifolia, mandarin
Substitutions: Clary sage, lavender, Roman chamomile, ginger

CORE INDICATIONS

  • Digestive system: stress-related digestive upset, tonic to digestive processes, decrease excess gas (O+++, C+++, D+++, I+++)
  • Musculoskeletal system: muscular or joint aches and pains, rheumatic aches and pains, joint swelling, muscle spasms, growing pain (adolescents), cramps, sciatica, carpal tunnel syndrome, plantar fasciitis, osteoarthritis (C+++, D+, I+)
  • Nervous system: anxiety, tachycardia brought about by anxiety, stress, or fear, headaches, insomnia, stress reliever, lethargy, nervous exhaustion, stress, agitation, tonic to the parasympathetic nervous system16, nervous asthenia, neuralgia (O+++, C+++, I+++, D+++, Fb+)
  • Respiratory system: spasmodic coughs, bronchitis, sinusitis, nasopharyngitis, respiratory viral infections (O+++, C+++, D++, I+++)
  • Reproductive & endocrine systems: dysmenorrhea20, menstrual cramps, herpes simplex virus17, an anaphrodisiac (could be useful for sexual addiction/obsession) (O+, C+++, D+, I++)
  • Skin: inflamed skin conditions, wound healing, acne, eczema (C+++)
  • Psyche/Emotion: calming to the nerves, calms obsessive thinking18, can assist with anxiety, over-thinking, grief, acceptance of loss. Marjoram can help us to accept any deep loss, especially when combined with oils of cypress and rose.19 (D+++, I+++, C++, Fb++)

RESEARCH

Human Studies

  • A combination of Lavender, Clary sage, and Marjoram provides relief for individuals with dysmenorrhea and reduces menstrual pain.21A study published in the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research in 2012 found that abdominal self-massage with essential oils provided relief for outpatients with PD and reduced the duration of menstrual pain. 48 outpatients diagnosed with PD by a gynecologist were divided into two groups. The experimental group received essential oils of lavender, clary sage, and marjoram in a 2:1:1 ratio diluted to 3% in an unscented jojoba cream at a dosage of 2 g/day, while the control group was given a synthetic fragrance diluted in jojoba cream. Demographically, the participants ranged in age from 19-45 years, 77% had experienced dysmenorrhea for over three years, and 50% of the participants had never used analgesics. One criterion of inclusion was that participants had at least one menstrual cycle in the previous year, which the authors charmingly referred to as a “menstrual experience.”Pain levels were evaluated with a 10-point numeric rating scale (NRS) and verbal rating scale (VRS) pre-intervention, on the first three days of the first menstrual cycle concurrent with the intervention, and post-intervention on the first three days of the subsequent cycle. The researchers observed a statistically significant reduction in the duration of pain in the aromatherapy group but not in the synthetic fragrance group, as well as a greater drop in the severity of pain from the first to the third days of menstruation. None of the participants in the aromatherapy group required analgesics after the intervention.The researchers also performed gas chromatography on the essential oil blend to identify constituents and found the top five contents to be: linalyl acetate (36.84%), linalool (22.53%), eucalyptol (17.21%), ɑ- terpineol (3.29%), and β-caryophyllene (2.69%). The analgesic effects of the essential oil blend are attributed to these compounds. The authors attempt to tease out potential confounding factors of the effects of massage, writing:Massage can reduce stress hormone levels by excreting endorphins in the plasma, promoting parasympathetic activation, and increase secretion of the neurotransmitter serotonin to block the conduction of pain. Indeed, massage may possess positive influences on relieving menstrual pain. However, it has no persistent analgesic efficacy, only temporary efficacy… The efficacy of pain relief was due to certain components in the massage cream, and not to the practice of massage itself in our study.The authors note that aromatherapy has a “positive influence on the autonomic nervous system, releasing anxiety, and controlling pain,” an outcome they attribute not just to the scent of the essential oils, but to transdermal absorption of their chemical constituents. The mechanism of action likely involves inhibition of prostaglandin secretion by linalool, which results in decreased myometrial contractility. Eucalyptol (1,8-cineole), a terpene oxide found in marjoram oil, inhibits the metabolism of arachidonic acid, a precursor to PGs found to have inflammatory effects on human blood monocytes. β-caryophyllene, a terpene, also exerts local anesthetic activity.22

 

Thyme

Thyme

Thymus vulgaris L.

 

Watch: About Thyme and its chemotypes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Thyme
Scientific name: Thymus vulgaris L.
Botanical family: Lamiaceae syn. Labiatae
Conservation status: Least concern

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: France, Morocco
Part of plant used: Partially dried herb, leaves
Extraction method: Distillation – often distilled twice to remove irritating properties
Essential oil yield: 2-5%
Color of oil: Reddish, brown

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Strong, spicy, balsamic
Blending factor: 1

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Thirty-four to fifty-five+ unique components make up 99% of the whole essential oil of Thymus vulgaris and its various chemotypes.,, There are approximately twenty known chemotypes of Thymus vulgaris. Factors affecting the chemical composition include: genotype, climatic, soil factors, harvest time, etc.

Thymus vulgaris growing in Southern France has six known chemotypes, based upon the predominant component: ct. geraniol, ct. linalool, ct. a-terpineol, ct. thujanol, ct. thymol, and ct. carvacrol. Other known chemotypes include: ct. 1,8 cineole, ct.

We will focus on the most commonly available chemotypes in this monograph.

SAFETY INFORMATION

See safety information under each chemotype.

CORE INDICATIONS

Research

In Vitro Studies

  • Thyme ct. thymol (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil exhibits powerful antibacterial activity.
    Gaseous thyme (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil as well as its active component, thymol, demonstrated strong antibacterial activity against Haemophilus influenzae, penicillin-susceptible and resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus in vitro. The authors concluded that high vapor concentration exposures for short periods of time cause the most effective antimicrobial activity.
  • Thyme ct. thymol (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil exhibits antioxidant activity.
  • Thyme ct. thymol (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil exhibits antimicrobial activity, particularly against Staphylococcus aureus.
  • Thyme ct. geraniol (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil exhibits antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis. The minimum effective concentration was a 4% dilution of thyme ct. geraniol essential oil. The essential oil was also effective against Escherichia coli at a minimum concentration of 4.5%.

Animal Studies

  • Thyme ct. carvacrol (45.54%) (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil exhibits significant hepatoprotective activity against acetaminophen-induced hepatic damage when given orally to mice. The essential oil also exhibited antioxidant activity. It should be noted, the researchers commented on potential overdose at levels beyond those of the therapeutic dose. Overdose can cause hepatotoxicity.
  • Thyme ct. carvacrol (45.5%) (Thymus vulgaris) essential oil exhibited anti-inflammatory activity.

 

Rosemary

Rosemary

Watch: About Rosemary with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: Rosemary
Scientific name: Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.syn. Rosmarinus officinalis L.

Before 2017, it was recognized under the scientific designation Rosmarinus officinalis, which is currently considered a synonym. Salvia rosmarinus is the accepted scientific name for Rosemary.

Botanical family: Lamiaceae
Conservation status: Least concern

Description: Rosemary is a perennial evergreen herb in the Lamiaceae family native to the Mediterranean. This aromatic herb is characterized by its fragrant needle-like leaves, which are dark green on the upper surface and lighter to white underneath. The leaves are arranged oppositely on the woody stems and exude a distinct pine-like aroma when crushed.

The plant typically grows to 1 meter tall, though some reach heights of 2 meters. The plant produces small, two-lipped flowers ranging from pale blue to lavender.

The plant has been naturalized throughout Europe and is widely cultivated for its pungent, aromatic, bitter leaves. These are commonly used as a culinary spice and added to savory dishes.

Ethnobotany: In folk medicine, rosemary was believed to strengthen memory; in literature and folklore, it signifies remembrance and fidelity. Rosemary was traditionally used as an aromatic ingredient in tonics and liniments and valued as a stimulant. In modern times, it is used in body care products and vermouth production.

Rosemary has been used in traditional systems of medicine as a remedy for digestive upset and was applied topically to relieve low back and muscle pain. In China, rosemary was mixed with borax and applied to the head to prevent baldness. A similar formula was employed in Europe to fend off dandruff. Rosemary has been widely used to alleviate headaches, as well as gas, indigestion, colds, and nervous tension.

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Morocco, France, Spain, South Africa, Tunisia
Part of plant used: Leaves and flowering tops
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 1.5-2.5% (v/w)
Color of oil: Clear – pale yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Chemotypes are essential oils extracted from one botanical species yet yield essential oils of distinctly different and unique chemical compositions (usually, one chemical compound is higher than the norm). Environmental conditions such as light, soil, temperature, moisture, climatic influence, and altitude, as well as geographic area, can all affect the chemistry of a given species.

There are 6+ known chemotypes for Rosemary:

  • ct. 1,8 cineole
  • ct. camphor
  • ct. verbenone
  • ct. ⍺-pinene
  • ct. bornyl acetate (upwards of 20.27%)

We will focus on the three most commonly available chemotypes: cineole, camphor, and verbenone. Their core composition is very similar, yet some significant differences make them chemotypes.

Chemical family
and specific components		ct. cineolect. verbenonect. camphor
Monoterpenes:
⍺-pinene5.74 - 19.43%13.05%11.56-21.03%
β-pinene3.71 - 9.11%2.16%5.45%
camphene2.21 - 11.52%6.94%5.83-9.15%
limonene1.18-3.55%-3.64%
p-cymene1.48%2.42%1.26%
Other monoterpenes: a-phellandrene, y-terpinene, delta-3-carene, terpinolene, a-thujene (6.42%)
Sesquiterpenes:
β-caryophyllene 14.47%
Monoterpenols:
borneol2.92-3.68%3.85%2.74%
Esters:
bornyl acetate0.54 -1.22%12.47%2.27-3.97%
Ether/oxides:
1,8 cineole27.23 - 56.5%13.66%14.41-24.48%
Ketones:
Camphor6.89 - 14.26%15.58%>20% -32.33%
Verbenone
References: 6-10

 

SAFETY INFORMATION

ct. 1,8 cineole

  • Caution for children: Avoid applying 1,8 cineole-rich essential oils to the face or near the nose of infants and children under the age of 5. Do not instill 1,8 cineole-rich essential oils into the nose of infants or children.
  • Internal contraindication: Essential oils rich in 1,8 cineole should not be used with infants or young children via the internal route (oral, rectal suppositories, etc.)

ct. verbenone

  • Cautions: May be neurotoxic, based on camphor content. (oral)

ct. camphor

  • Cautions: May be neurotoxic, based on camphor content. (oral)

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Fresh, strong, vibrant, and herbaceous
Blending factor: 2-3
Notes: Top to mid
Blends well with: Eucalyptus sp., laurel, lemon, tea tree, juniper berry, lemongrass, monarda, rosalina, grapefruit, thyme ct. thymol or ct. linalool, lemongrass
Substitutions: Eucalyptus globulus or E. radiata (respiratory), Helichrysum or Carrot seed (wound healing)

CORE INDICATIONS

FOR EACH CHEMOTYPE

Essential Oil InfoTherapeutic ActionsCore Indications

Rosemary ct. cineole



Country of Origin: Tunisia

Chemical feature: Rich in 1,8 cineole, supported a-pinene, other monoterpenes, camphor, and b-caryophyllene.		Mild analgesic, antibacterial, anti-catarrhal, antifungal (Candida albicans), anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, antispasmodic, antiviral, cephalic, decongestant, digestive, expectorant, mucolytic, muscle relaxant, vulnerary

Energetics:
Western energetics: temperate (can be cooling or warming depending on dosage)
Tissue states: damp stagnation

System affinities: Respiratory
• Respiratory system: sinusitis, excess mucus, bronchitis, cold/flu congestion
• Musculoskeletal system: muscular aches and pains, stiffness, fatigue
• Nervous system: foggy memory, poor memory ; impaired mental functioning, with reduced cerebral activity and decreased neuronal plasticity.
• General: chronic fatigue, fatigue in general, excessive physical or mental activity, clears the mind, foggy thinking
Essential Oil InfoTherapeutic ActionsCore Indications

Rosemary
ct. camphor



Country of origin: Spain, Croatia, South Africa

Chemical feature: Rich in camphor, 1,8 cineole and supported by monoterpenes (a-pinene and others)		Analgesic, anti-rheumatic, antiviral, carminative, cephalic, circulatory decongestant/stimulant, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, mucolytic, muscle relaxant, vulnerary

Energetics:
Western energetics: warming
Tissue states: damp stagnation, tension, cold

System affinities: Musculoskeletal
• Circulatory system: decongestant and vein stimulant: blend with black pepper and marjoram
• Respiratory system: colds/flu, respiratory congestion
• Musculoskeletal system: cramping pains in the legs ; muscle relaxant, considered to be the most specific for neuromuscular problems including muscular aches and pains, cramps, spasms, and neuralgic and rheumatic pain ; arthritic conditions
• Psyche/emotion: low energy, depression, fatigue, general malaise, poor memory, inability to concentrate
Essential Oil InfoTherapeutic ActionsCore Indications

Rosemary
ct. verbenone



Country of Origin: France, Corsica, South Africa

Chemical feature: Rich in monoterpene (a-pinene) supported by 1,8 cineole, camphor, and verbenone.
Mild analgesic, anti-catarrhal, anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, antiviral, carminative, cell regenerative, cephalic, endocrine regulator, expectorant, mucolytic, muscle relaxant, tonic to skin and heart, vulnerary

Energetics:
Western energetics: temperate (can be cooling or warming depending on dosage)
Tissue states: damp stagnation

System affinities: Respiratory, Skin
• Musculoskeletal system: muscle cramps, muscular aches and pains, cramps, spasms, and neuralgic and rheumatic pain, arthritic conditions
• Nervous system: low energy
• Respiratory system: bronchitis, sinusitis, rhinitis, flu, common cold
• Skin: rosacea, acne, seborrhea (oily skin with congestion), varicose veins, wound healing, promotes microcirculation, skin care
• Psyche/emotion: restores psychological balance , clears the mind

RESEARCH

Human studies

  • Dermal application of rosemary ct. cineole (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil increased autonomic arousal (stimulating effect) and made participants feel more attentive, alert, vigorous and more cheerful.

In this 2009 study, designed to study the effect of rosemary essential oil when applied to the skin, each participant had oxygen supplied through an inhalation set (like an oxygen mask) to avoid physiological reactions due to the inhalation of the aroma. The study included thirty-five participants. Participants were placed in one of two groups: the rosemary group or the control group. The control group had 20 participants, while the rosemary group had 15 participants.

The rosemary group applied 1ml of a 20% (w/w) dilution of rosemary in sweet almond oil to the skin of the lower abdomen. They were instructed to massage the oil into the skin for 5 minutes. The control group followed the same protocol but with only sweet almond oil.

The physiological parameters studied included systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, skin temperature, breathing rate, and pulse rate. Participants rated their mental and emotional state using specific words such as relaxed, vigor, calmness, attentiveness, alertness, and mood.

Results showed that dermal application of rosemary essential oil significantly increased blood pressure (an increase in sympathetic tone/increase in autonomic arousal) and increased breathing rate. Participants in the rosemary group rated themselves as more alert, attentive, and cheerful than the control group participants or before the administration of rosemary essential oil.

These findings are likely to represent an energizing and stimulating effect of the rosemary essential oil and provide some evidence for the usage of the rosemary essential oil for its stimulating properties as well as to relieve stress.

Animal Studies

  • The inhalation of Rosemary ct. camphor had an anti-stress effect on mice by decreasing serum corticosterone levels and increasing brain dopamine levels. The researchers speculated that the inhalation of rosemary is capable of regulating activities of the HPA axis and, hence, can be of potential benefit in the treatment of clinical depression and stress-related mood disorders

In Vitro

  • Rosemary ct. cineole (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil exhibits antibacterial activity.
  • Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil chemotypes exhibit antifungal activity, with ct. camphor and ct. a-pinene was more effective against Candida albicans.
  • Rosemary ct. cineole (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil exhibits antioxidant activity.

 

Lemon

Lemon

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. syn. C. medica ssp. limonium Hook, syn. C. limonium Risso

Watch: About Lemon Essential Oil with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: lemon
Scientific name: Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Synonyms: C. medica ssp. limonum Hook, syn. C. limonum Risso
Botanical family: Rutaceae
Conservation status: Not defined

Description: Lemon is an evergreen tree in the Rutaceae family that typically grows 2.5-3 meters in height. Leaves are lanceolate, and flowers are white with a purple hue at the edge of the petals. The flowers congregate in small clusters, or are arranged individually, growing in leaf axils. The fruit of Citrus limon is an oval, elongated pointed green berry that ripens to its characteristic yellow color. The berry is filled with juicy pulp divided in segments. The pericarp is composed of three layers: the thin, wax-covered exocarp, the middle mesocarp, which contains oil vesicles and carotenoid dyes, and spongy white parenchymal tissue, and the inner endocarp, or ‘fruit flesh,’ which is compartmentalized by the mesocarp parenchyma.

The origin of C. limon is not accurately known, but the tree is considered to be native to North-Western or North-Eastern India. Lemon trees thrive in sunshine, and grow best on loamy, well-drained, moist soils.

Lemon is largely recognized as a cultivated species. C. limon has been grown in southern Italy since the 3rd century AD, and in Iraq and Egypt dating back to 700 AD. The United States is currently the world’s largest producer of lemons, followed by Italy, Spain, Argentina, and Brazil.

Ethnobotany: In traditional systems of medicine, lemon juice was used to treat high blood pressure, the common cold, and irregular menstruation. The essential oil, cold-pressed from the fresh outer parts of the pericarp, has been used as a remedy for coughs. In Romanian traditional medicine, C. limon essential oil was added to sugar and used as a cough suppressant. In Trinidad, the juice or grated skin of lemon has been mixed with molasses to eliminate excess water in the body.1

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Italy, USA, Argentina, Sicily, Cyprus
Part of plant used: Peel or zest of fruit
Extraction method: Expression or steam distillation
Essential oil yield: 0.5-2.5% expressed; 0.05-0.1% distilled
Color of oil: Pale yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Cold pressed essential oil

Cold pressed lemon essential oil contains over 47+ unique components. Main components include: limonene (47.45-67.02%), -terpinene (8.81-13.7%), β-pinene (10+%), ⍺-pinene (1.89-3.35%), myrcene (1.44-1.92%), sabinene (1.6+%), geranial (1.09-2.17%), neral (0.68-1.42%), b-bisabolene (0.44-1.6%)2,3

Monoterpenes: limonene (47.45-67.02%), -terpinene (8.81-13.7%), β-pinene (10+%), ⍺-pinene (1.89-3.35%), myrcene (1.44-1.92%), sabinene (1.6+%)
Aldehydes: geranial (1.09-2.17%), neral (0.68-1.42%)

Distilled essential oil

**Distilled lemon has a similar composition as expressed lemon, with slight differences in amounts of each component. Distilled lemon tends to be used in food flavoring rather than in aromatherapy, as the aroma of distilled lemon is considered to be inferior to that of the expressed lemon.4

Monoterpenes: limonene (56.3%), -terpinene (6.42%), β-pinene (8.81%), ⍺-pinene (1.34%), myrcene (1.30%), sabinene (1.6+%)
Monoterpenols: linalool (1.78%), ⍺-terpineol (2.25%), 4-terpineol (2.25%), nerol (2.29%)
Aldehydes: geranial (4.96%), neral (3.83%)
Ester: neryl acetate (1.11%)5

SAFETY INFORMATION

  • Due to the limonene content in lemon essential oil, it is critical that the essential oil be stored properly (e.g., in a dark container in the refrigerator or in a cold room away from sunlight and heat).
  • When limonene is oxidized it can become a dermal sensitizer. Oxidized citrus essential oils should not be used in body care products but can be used for cleaning products.
  • Average shelf life for monoterpene-rich essential oils, such as grapefruit, when stored correctly is 1-3 years.
  • GRAS status.
  • Expressed lemon: Low risk for phototoxicity, but it is recommended that topical applications be kept to lower than 2% dilution or that the affected skin not be exposed to sunlight or sunbed rays for at least 12 hours.6
  • Distilled lemon: Not considered to be phototoxic but can be a dermal sensitizer when oxidized.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SystemAction
Cardiovascular systemhypotensive
Digestive systemdepurative, hepatoprotective7, lipolytic
Immune systemimmune enhancer
Urinary systemdiuretic
Nervous system; Psyche/emotionsanticholinesterase, antidepressant8,9, anxiolytic10,11, nervine12,13
Generalantibacterial, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive14, antioxidant15,16,17,18, antiseptic, antiviral, astringent

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Digestive, Circulatory, Nervous, Skin, Lymph/Immune

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Sharp, citrus, refreshing
Blending factor: 6
Note: Top note
Blends well with: Grapefruit, ginger, tea tree, Eucalyptus globulus or E. radiata, lavender, juniper berry, Pinus species (e.g., Scots pine), cypress, cedar, cedarwood, Douglas fir, black spruce, ravintsara, palmarosa, elemi, Boswellia carterii, myrrh, niaouli

CORE INDICATIONS

  • General: air purifier, infectious disease (preventative) (D+++, Sp+++)
  • Circulatory system: poor circulation, detoxing, venous stasis, heavy legs, hemorrhoids, capillary fragility, varicose veins (can help to prevent and also to prevent them from getting worse) (C+++, O++)
  • Digestive system: poor or sluggish digestion19, toxic overload, hemorrhoids (C+++, O+++)
  • Lymph and immune system: lymphatic congestion, preventative for contagious illnesses20 (C+++, O+++)
  • Musculoskeletal system: muscular or joint aches and pains, arthritis, cellulite, rheumatism, joint swelling, gout (C+++, I+, O++ *gout)
  • Nervous system: Asthenia (general weakness), headache, general fatigue, inability to focus (C+++, O++, I+++)
  • Skin: acne, boils, comedones, premature aging skin (preventative), oily complexions, mouth ulcers, cellulite, herpes, rosaceae (couperose), tired, sagging and grayish (smoker’s) skin, capillary fragility, broken capillaries, varicose veins (can help to prevent and also to prevent them from getting worse), ulcers where a large amount of puss or debridement is present (use 1.5 percent dilution in distilled water with lemon and tea tree and apply via a mister to whole area of ulcer at frequent intervals.21) (C+++, O++)
  • Psyche/emotion: anxiety, depression, stress, anger/irritability, can support communication for those who may have limited communication skills. Lemon can heighten consciousness and is generally activating, stabilizing, and calming during potential emotional outbursts, due to its cooling, clearing, and refreshing effect.22 (I+++, C+++, O+)

RESEARCH

Human Studies

  • A combination of lemon, orange, and bergamot essential oils with cis-4-hexanol exhibits antidepressant and immune-enhancing activities.
    Twelve depressive patients experienced some relief from their depression after being treated with the citrus fragrance. Their hormone levels and immune function also improved during treatment.23

Animal Studies

  • Citrus limon essential oil has sedative, anxiolytic and antidepressant activities.24
  • Lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil has antioxidant activity. Data in this study implied that Citrus limon essential oil, when used as an antioxidant, can protect the hippocampus from the oxidative damage that often accompanies neurodegenerative diseases.25 Another study also found Citrus limon to exhibit antioxidant activity as well as significant antinociceptive activity.26
  • Lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil is antidepressant and anxiolytic.
    In this study, Citrus limon essential oil demonstrated anxiolytic and antidepressant effects through direct interactions with the 5-HTnergic pathway, especially via 5-HT(1A) receptor, and dopamine metabolism within the hippocampus.27

In vitro Studies

  • Lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil is a safe and effective penetration enhancer for vitamins held in both water/oil or oil/water emulsions.28
  • Lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil exhibits lipolytic (ability to break up fat) activity.29

 

Lavender

Lavender

Lavandula angustifolia P. Mill.

 

Watch Presentation on Lavender with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Lavender, English lavender
Scientific name: Lavandula angustifolia Mill.
Synonyms: Lavandula officinalis Chaix syn. L. vera DC.
Botanical family: Lamiaceae
Conservation status: Least concern1

Description: Lavandula is a genus in the Lamiaceae family that includes about 30 species of small flowering evergreen shrubs. Lavenders are native to the Mediterranean, and have been naturalized and cultivated throughout much of the world. The leaves are linear, hoary, and grey-green, while the flowers are purple and sparsely arranged at the tips of long bare stalks. Lavender’s aroma arises from shining oil glands interspersed amongst the tiny star-shaped trichomes that cover the plant’s flowers, leaves, and stems. The most widely cultivated species of the Lavandula genus include English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), French lavender (L. stoechas), and woolly lavender (L. lanata).

Lavender essential oil is distilled from the flowers, and is used in perfumery and cosmetics, and to flavor beverages, sweets, and ice creams. Dried lavender flowers have long been used in sachets to scent chests and closets.2

Ethnobotany: Lavandula has a long tradition of medicinal usage. The notion that ancient Romans used lavenders in their baths is widely disseminated, and thus the common name lavender is thought to arise from the Latin lavare, “to wash.” Reference to lavender flowers and oil have not been found in comprehensive reviews of Roman bathing practices, however, and the attribution is likely apocryphal.

One 17th century Persian medical text describes lavender as “the broom of the brain,” as it is thought to “sweep away impurities.” An Indian medical text dating to the 8th century BCE includes lavender in various psychiatric formulas as an edible ointment or medicinal butter. These traditional preparations are still used in modern Tibetan Buddhist medicine to relieve insanity and psychosis. In European systems of traditional herbal medicine, lavender was primarily used in teas, baths, and pillows as a mild sedative and gentle nervine. Lavender has also been valued in European folk medicine for its spasmolytic, carminative, stomachic, and diuretic properties. Lavender flowers have been used as a remedy in laryngitis, asthma, sinusitis, and candida infections. Lavender oil massaged into the temples is a traditional remedy for headache, and the oil is thought to ease muscular pain. It is used topically to heal insect bites, burns, and small cuts.3

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: France, Bulgaria, England, USA
Part of plant used: Flowering tops
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 0.5 – 3%
Color of oil: Clear

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Seventy-seven+ components make up 97.3% of the essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia. The core components include: linalool (25-38%), camphor (11%), linalyl acetate (25-45%).

Monoterpenes: limonene (<1-8.5%), a-pinene (0.2%), a-thujene (0.6%), a-terpinene (0.3%), b-ocimene (2.5-6%)
Sesquiterpenes: b-caryophyllene (3-12%)
Esters: linalyl acetate (27.5%), bornyl acetate (0.1%), lavandulyl acetate (3.4-6.2%), neryl acetate (2.0%), geranyl acetate (3%)
Monoterpenols: linalool (27.2%), borneol (2.5%), terpinen-4-ol (2.1-6%), a-terpineol (<2-4.2%)
Ketones: camphor (0.5-1%)
Ethers (oxides): 1,8 cineole (1-2%), cis-linalool oxide (2.4%)4

SAFETY INFORMATION

  • No known contraindications
  • GRAS status

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SystemAction
Musculoskeletal systemanalgesic, antirheumatic
Skincell regenerative (cytophylactic), vulnerary
Cardiovascularhypotensive
Nervous system; Psyche/emotionsantidepressant, anxiolytic, nervine, sedative
Generalanti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Nervous, Skin

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Fresh, floral, sweet, herbaceous
Blending factor: 7
Note: Mid note
Blends well with: Most essential oils.

CORE INDICATIONS

  • Cardiovascular system: hypertension, heart palpitations (from anxiety), tachycardia (I+++, C+, D+++)
  • Digestive system: stress-related digestive upsets, including irritable bowel syndrome, abdominal cramps, nervous stomach (O+++, I+++, C+++)
  • Musculoskeletal system: muscular aches and pains, arthritis, sprains, strains, muscle spasms, growing pains, plantar faciitis, tendonitis, shin splints, rheumatic conditions, joint pain and stiffness, bursitis, cramps (C+++)
  • Nervous system: restlessness, insomnia, stress, shock, headaches, migraines, neuralgia, nausea, stress related disorders (O+++, I+++, C+++, D++)
  • Reproductive/endocrine system: calms during delivery, can help reduce severity of contractions (use with clary sage), helps in relieving pain, menstrual cramps, PMS, perineal discomfort and repair following childbirth, wound healing from episiotomy (O+++, C+++, I+++, D++)
  • Skin: burns (recommend using Lavandula latifolia instead or in conjunction with), scrapes, abscesses, acne, athlete’s foot, eczema, inflamed skin conditions, psoriasis (as an anti-inflammatory), sunburn, relieves itching, insect bites, hives, open wounds or sores, poorly healing wounds, allergy (expressed on the skin), razor burn, stretch marks (C+++)
  • Psyche/emotion: calming, soothing, nurturing, irritability, balancing, personal renewal, useful in treating depression (including manic), anxiety, hyperactivity, alleviates fears and delusions, extreme emotions, panic attacks, hysteria, fainting, challenging behavior, limited communication skills, fear of touch, disturbed sleep patterns (I+++, D+++, O+++, Fb+++)
    __________________
  • Ayurveda: In Ayurvedic terms, the effect of lavender oil could be described as pacifying to vata (calms, relaxes, and restores the nervous system) and cooling to pitta (anti-inflammatory). It is a highly sattvic oil, meaning that it purifies aggravated emotional states and helps bring mental peace. Lavender Shirodhara showed potent anxiolytic and Altered State of Consciousness-inducing or promoting effects, and induced the largest increase in foot skin temperature.5
  • Traditional Chinese Medicine: Calming to shen, cooling to liver heat, relaxing to liver chi stagnation. For stagnation of liver chi, liver wind, damp heat in the liver and gallbladder, liver Yang rising, heart fire, kidney Yin deficiency with heat.

RESEARCH

Human Studies

  • A combination of lavender, clary sage, and marjoram provides relief for individuals with dysmenorrhea and reduces menstrual pain.

A study published in the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research in 2012 found that abdominal self-massage with essential oils provided relief for outpatients with PD and reduced the duration of menstrual pain. 48 outpatients diagnosed with PD by a gynecologist were divided into two groups. The experimental group received essential oils of lavender, clary sage, and marjoram in a 2:1:1 ratio diluted to 3% in an unscented jojoba cream at a dosage of 2 g/day, while the control group was given a synthetic fragrance diluted in jojoba cream. Demographically, the participants ranged in age from 19-45 years, 77% had experienced dysmenorrhea for over three years, and 50% of the participants had never used analgesics. One criterion of inclusion was that participants had at least one menstrual cycle in the previous year, which the authors charmingly referred to as a “menstrual experience.”

Pain levels were evaluated with a 10-point numeric rating scale (NRS) and verbal rating scale (VRS) pre-intervention, on the first three days of the first menstrual cycle concurrent with the intervention, and post-intervention on the first three days of the subsequent cycle. The researchers observed a statistically significant reduction in the duration of pain in the aromatherapy group but not in the synthetic fragrance group, as well as a greater drop in the severity of pain from the first to the third days of menstruation. None of the participants in the aromatherapy group required analgesics after the intervention.

The researchers also performed gas chromatography on the essential oil blend to identify constituents and found the top five contents to be: linalyl acetate (36.84%), linalool (22.53%), eucalyptol (17.21%), ɑ- terpineol (3.29%), and β-caryophyllene (2.69%). The analgesic effects of the essential oil blend are attributed to these compounds. The authors attempt to tease out potential confounding factors of the effects of massage, writing:

Massage can reduce stress hormone levels by excreting endorphins in the plasma, promoting parasympathetic activation, and increase secretion of the neurotransmitter serotonin to block the conduction of pain. Indeed, massage may possess positive influences on relieving menstrual pain. However, it has no persistent analgesic efficacy, only temporary efficacy… The efficacy of pain relief was due to certain components in the massage cream, and not to the practice of massage itself in our study.

The authors note that aromatherapy has a “positive influence on the autonomic nervous system, releasing anxiety, and controlling pain,” an outcome they attribute not just to the scent of the essential oils, but to transdermal absorption of their chemical constituents. The mechanism of action likely involves inhibition of prostaglandin secretion by linalool, which results in decreased myometrial contractility. Eucalyptol (1,8-cineole), a terpene oxide found in marjoram oil, inhibits the metabolism of arachidonic acid, a precursor to PGs found to have inflammatory effects on human blood monocytes. β-caryophyllene, a terpene, also exerts local anesthetic activity.6

  • A combination of Lavender, Clary sage and Rose decreases menstrual cramps.

A randomized placebo-controlled trial published in 2006 in the Journal of Alternative Complementary Medicine found that abdominal self-massage with almond oil and aromatherapy was more effective at relieving dysmenorrhea than almond oil self-massage alone. In this study 67 college students with a menstrual pain ranking of 6/10 or higher on the visual analog scale were divided into experimental, placebo, and control groups. The experimental group performed self massage with 5 cc of almond oil to which essential oils had been added: 2 drops lavender (Lavandula officinalis), 1 drop rose (Rosa centifolia), and 1 drop clary sage (Salvia sclarea). The placebo group performed self massage with 5 cc of almond oil, while the control group received no treatment. Intensity of pain was measured via the visual analog scale, while severity of dysmenorrhea symptoms were assessed with a multidimensional scoring system designed to assess the impact of dysmenorrhea on daily life. Aromatherapy self massage was found to reduce the intensity of menstrual pain compared to placebo and control, as well as to significantly reduce the severity of dysmenorrhea impact on the first and second days of menstruation. Aromatherapy treatment resulted in a pain score drop from 7.40 to 4.26 on the first day of menstruation.7

One limitation of these studies is the inconsistency inherent in self massage as part of a treatment protocol. A 2012 study published in the journal of Pain Management Nursing controlled for this variable by having one practitioner perform abdominal massage on all the participants at a regularly scheduled time of day. In this trial, standardized abdominal massage with lavender oil was found to be more effective at reducing menstrual pain than massage with odorless liquid petrolatum. The experimental design consisted of a randomized crossover design, wherein 44 volunteers with PD received 15 minutes of abdominal massage with lavender oil or placebo oil. The results were measured via visual analog scale at baseline and post-treatment. Participants were monitored for three menstrual cycles: One observational period without treatment, followed by treatment/placebo for the next cycle, with the treatments swapped across groups in the third cycle. A reduction in pain was observed in both placebo and experimental groups, but the degree of pain reduction was significantly greater in the lavender oil group than the petrolatum group: pain levels as measured by a 100-point VAS scale dropped from 82.38 to 51.13 after aromatherapy massage, compared with 82.38 to 74.31 after placebo massage.8

Aromatherapy has also been shown to be effective in treating dysmenorrhea in the absence of abdominal massage, through inhalation alone. The Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research published a study in 2016 on the effect of lavender aromatherapy on pain severity in primary dysmenorrhea. In this triple-blind randomized clinical trial, 200 individuals between the ages of 19 and 29 with PD were divided into two groups. One was exposed to lavender essential oil and the other to diluted milk as a control. Each group received 10 cc of their respective substance and were instructed to drip three drops onto a piece of cotton, and to smell it once daily for 30 minutes on the first three days of their cycle for two consecutive cycles. Pain was quantified via the visual analog scale which was submitted via questionnaire on the cycle previous to treatment (Cycle-0), and the two subsequent cycles. The researchers found that the group exposed to lavender essential oil experienced a statistically significant reduction in pain over the course of two cycles as compared to the control group, which had no such reduction. Pain levels were comparable between the two groups prior to treatment.9

Another randomized clinical study published in Complementary Therapies in Medicine in 2014 found that inhalation of lavender essential oil significantly reduced symptoms of primary dysmenorrhea. In this study 96 Iranian students suffering from PD were divided into two groups. The experimental group was given lavender essential oil diluted in sesame oil at a ratio of 2:1, while the placebo group used sesame oil alone. The subjects were instructed to place three drops of the oil on their palms, rub them together, place their hands at a distance of 7-10 cm from their noses, and inhale for five minutes. This treatment was administered one hour following the onset of dysmenorrhea symptoms, and repeated every six hours for the first three days of menstruation for two consecutive menstrual cycles. Results were measured via a researcher-developed questionnaire based on existing dysmenorrhea literature and designed to assess symptoms intensity from light to severe/debilitating. The volume of menstrual bleeding was measured by a pictorial blood assessment chart before and after treatment. Researchers found that inhalation of lavender significantly reduced symptoms of dysmenorrhea compared to placebo. Menstrual volume was reduced, though the data was not statistically significant, and there was no effect of lavender inhalation on the presence of blood clots.10

  • Inhalation of lavender (scientific name not given) essential oil relieves anxiety and reduces cortisol levels in candidates for open-heart surgery.11
  • Inhalation of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil reduces stress and improves sleep quality in patients in intensive care unit.12
  • Inhalation of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil exhibits relaxing activity.
    The results revealed that lavender oil caused significant decreases of blood pressure, heart rate, and skin temperature, which indicated a decrease of autonomic arousal. In terms of mood responses, the subjects in the lavender oil group categorized themselves as more active, fresher relaxed than subjects just inhaling base oil.13

Animal Studies

  • Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil exhibits anxiolytic and sedative activity.14,15
  • Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil exhibits anxiolytic activity.16,17,18
  • Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil exhibits local analgesic activity.19
  • Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil exhibited an anti-stress effect and decreased anxiety and social avoidance without intense causing intense sedation.20
  • Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil exhibits anti-inflammatory activity.21
  • Dermal application of lavender essential oil (2% dilution) reduced inflammation and exhibited anti-nociceptive activity.22

 

Frankincense

Frankincense

Boswellia sacra Flueck. syn. Boswellia carteri Birdw.

 

Watch: About Frankincense with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Frankincense
Scientific name: Boswellia sacra Flueck.
Synonym: Boswellia carteri Birdw.
Botanical family: Burseraceae
Conservation status: Near threatened

Description: A moderate to large-sized branching tree. Leaves are unequally pinnated, the leaflets serrated and sometimes alternate. The flowers are small and white, or a pale rose color.

Frankincense is an oleo-gum resin harvested by making incisions in the trunk of the tree in a process is known as “striping.” Exuded sap hardens into resinous droplets called “tears,” which can then be collected. The chemical composition of frankincense resins is influenced by differences in soil and climate.

Boswellia species, such as Boswellia sacra, are known for their resilience and can grow directly out of solid rock. Boswellia flourishes in such inhospitable environments by virtue of a bulbous, disk-like swelling of the trunk, which secures the tree to its mooring during violent storms. This structure is not found in trees growing in rocky gravel or soil.

Ethnobotany: Natural resins have played a significant role in many cultures over the course of history. Frankincense has been used medicinally, as an adhesive, in cosmetic preparations, as fragrance in daily rituals and religious ceremonies, as a coating material, and, famously, in embalming. Resins were burned during sacrificial ceremonies, in daily rituals to ward off evil spirits, and to honor the living as well as the dead. Gum-resin extracts of Boswellia serrata have been traditionally used in folk medicine to treat myriad chronic inflammatory diseases.

The word frankincense is derived from the old French franc encens, which translates to “high quality incense.” The word franc in French meant “noble” or “pure”.

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Somalia, India, North Africa, Oman
Part of plant used: Resin
Extraction method: Steam distilled gum, white resin
Essential oil yield: 3-9%
Color of oil: Pale yellow, clear

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Rich in monoterpenes (α-pinene and d-limonene).

General Chemical Composition of Boswellia carteri
Chemical FamilyComponents
Monoterpenesα-pinene (33.7-50.77%), β-pinene (1-2%), limonene (10.82-17.6%), b-myrcene (4.48-8.3%), sabinene (3.95-6.07%), para-cymene (3.48-5.18%), delta-3-carene (0.63-1.26%), a-phellandrene (1.6-1.9%), a-thujene (1.75-12.8%), hashishene (0.75%), camphene (0.67-0.83%), b-phellandrene (0.58%), <0.5% of terpinolene, y-terpinene- a-terpinene, tricyclene, terpinolene, para-cymene, allocimene, 2-carene, and others.
Sesquiterpenesb-caryophyllene (1.13-3.18%), b-elemene (0.98%), a-copaene (0.66%), germacrene D (0.46%), a-humulene (0.45%), gamma-cadinene (0.75-1.21%), delta-cadinene (0.26-0.42%), <0.4% of b-selinene, b-bourbonene, <0.25% of gamma-muurolene, a-cubebene, a-gurjunene, allo-aromadendrene, a-muurolene, epi-cubenol and approximately 24 other sesquiterpenes at less than 0.10%
Monoterpene alcoholsterpinene-4-ol (0.53-1.09%), < 1% of trans-verbenol, trans-pinocarveol, cis-sabinene hydrate, a-terpineol, a-phellandren-8-ol and others less than 0.2%
Sesquiterpene alcoholsviridiflorol (0.68%), cubebol (0.25%), and others under 0.07%
Estersbornyl acetate (0.13-0.34%), <0.04% of amyl isovalerate, octyl acetate, hexyl isovalerate, linalyl acetate, a terpinyl acetate
Ethers (Oxides)1,8 cineole (0.19-0.27%), caryophyllene oxide (0.33-1.13%), and others at less than 0.06%
Ketonesverbenone (0.28%), carvone (0.05-0.11%), <0.07% pinocarvone, b-thujone, sabinaketone, 2-nonanone
Aldehydesa-campholenal (0.21%), myrtanal (0.13%), octanal (0.03%), 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (0.02%)
Phenolstoluene (0.07%), ortho-methylanisole (0.11%), 3,5-dimethoxytoluene (0.04%)

 

SAFETY INFORMATION

  • Caution: Due to the monoterpene content, it is important that the essential oil be stored properly (e.g., in a dark container in the refrigerator or in a cold room away from sunlight and heat). Oxidized essential oils should not be used in body care products or formulations designed for dermal application. The essential oil can, however, be used for cleaning products.
  • When stored correctly, the average shelf life for monoterpene-rich essential oils is 1-3 years.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SystemAction
Musculoskeletal systemanti-arthritic
Respiratory systemantitussive, balsamic, expectorant
Skinvulnerary
Nervous system Psyche/emotionsantidepressant, anxiolytic, nervine, sedative
Generalantibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, immune enhancer

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Skin, Immunity, Respiratory

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Clean, fresh, earthy, woody
Blending factor: 4 to 5
Notes: Middle note, Mid-Base note
Blends well with: Bergamot mint, black pepper, Himalayan cedar, Roman chamomile, cistus, copaiba, cypress, blue gum eucalyptus, goldenrod, lavender, lemon, lemongrass, lime, mandarin, myrrh, neroli, niaouli, sweet orange, patchouli, Scots pine, pinon pine, rose, sandalwood, hemlock spruce, yuzu

CORE INDICATIONS

Immune system: reduced or compromised immunity (I+++, O+++, D+++)

Musculoskeletal system: swollen joints, muscular aches and pains, arthritis (C+++)

Respiratory system: bronchitis, sinus congestion, asthma (I+++, C+++, D++)

Skin: mature skin, wrinkles, scar tissue, postoperative wound healing (once sutures are removed), eczema, acne, inflamed skin conditions, blackheads, hives, soothing to dry irritated skin (C+++)

Psyche/emotion: anxiety, tension, meditative, supports reflection and introspection, healing on all levels of spirit and emotion, stills the mind, inability to focus, spiritual consciousness, tranquility, wonderful oil to demonstrate mind-body connection, soothes the spirit (I+++, D+++, C++)
_______________

Ayurveda: excess vata represented as anxiety, fear, or dry conditions, soothing to prana vata, cools pitta
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM): In TCM, frankincense can smooth the flow of stagnant Qi energy.

 

Lesson 2: Therapeutic Actions

Aromatherapy

Glossary of Terms for Therapeutic Actions of Essential Oils

Throughout your studies of essential oils you will be learning some new terms (or perhaps familiar terms) in relation to the therapeutic actions of each essential oil. The following dictionary covers the therapeutic actions associated with essential oils. It may be a good idea to print out the Glossary so you have as a quick reference.

TermDefinition
Analgesic:an essential oil that relieves or reduces pain
Anesthetic:an essential oil that causes loss of feeling or sensation
Anti-allergenic:an essential oil that reduces symptoms of allergy
Anti-asthmatic: an essential oil that relieves the symptoms of asthma
Antibacterial:an essential oil that destroys bacteria
Anti-cholinesterase:an essential oil that inhibits the cholinesterase enzyme from breaking down Ach (Acetylcholine), increasing both the level and duration of the neurotransmitter action
Anticoagulant:an essential oil that prevents blood from clotting
Anticonvulsive:an essential oil that prevents or reduces seizures
Antidepressant:an essential oil that relieves depression
Antidiuretic:an essential oil that reduces the amount of water your body eliminates
Antiemetic:an essential oil that prevents vomiting
Antifungal:an essential oil that destroys or inhibits fungal growth
Antihistamine: an essential oil used to relieve symptoms of allergies, such as hay fever, hives, conjunctivitis, and reactions to insect bites or stings.
Anti-inflammatory:an essential oil that soothes and reduces inflammations
Antimicrobial:an essential oil that destroys or resists pathogenic microorganisms
Antioxidant:an essential oil that can prevent cell damage from the destructive elements of free radicals
Antiperspirant:an essential oil that reduces excessive sweating
Antirheumatic:an essential oil that helps to relieve the symptoms of rheumatism
Antiseptic:an essential oil that destroys or prevents the growth of microbes
Antispasmodic:an essential oil that relieves smooth/ skeletal muscle spasms
Antisudorific:an essential oil that prevents sweating
Antitussive:an essential oil that helps to relieve coughs
Antiviral: an essential oil that inhibits growth of a virus
Anxiolytic:an essential oil that can reduce anxiety
Aperitive:an essential oil that stimulates the appetite
Aphrodisiac:an essential oil that increases sexual stimulation and excitement
Astringent: an essential oil that causes cells to shrink; contracts, tightens, and binds tissues
Balsamic:an essential oil that soothes the lungs
Bronchodilator:an essential oil that causes widening of the air passages by relaxing bronchial muscles
Carminative:an essential oil that relieves flatulence or excess gas in the stomach
Cephalic: an essential oil that clears the mind, relating to the head
Cytophylactic:an essential oil that supports cellular regeneration
Decongestant:an essential oil that reduces or relieves nasal congestion
Deodorant: an essential oil that reduces or removes unpleasant body odor
Depurative: an essential oil that purifies the blood
Detoxifier:an essential oil that enhances the removal of toxic substances from the body
Diaphoretic:an essential oil that causes an increase in sweating
Digestive:an essential oil that aids digestion, tonic
Disinfectant:an essential oil that destroys or removes bacteria and other microorganisms
Diuretic:an essential oil that increases the flow of urine
Emmenagogue: an essential oil that promotes and helps regulate menstruation
Emollient:an essential oil that softens and soothes the skin, e.g., oils and fats
Estrogenic:an essential oil that may act similar to estrogen
Euphoric:an essential oil that induces a feeling of happiness, well-being
Expectorant: an essential oil that aids the removal of phlegm or mucus
Febrifuge:an essential oil that reduces or prevents fever; cools body temperature
Galactogogue:an essential oil that stimulates the flow of milk or increases milk flow
Hypertensive:an essential oil that raises blood pressure
Hypotensive:an essential oil that lowers blood pressure
Immune enhancer:an essential oil that enhances immunity, either by stimulating the immune system or by destroying microbes
Insecticide:an essential oil that kills or wards off insects and other threats
Mucolytic:an essential oil that dissolves mucus or breaks down mucus; used to treat chest conditions involving excessive or thickened mucus secretions
Muscle relaxant:an essential oil that relaxes the muscles
Nervine:an essential oil that relaxes the nervous system; can reduce nervous disorders
Neuroprotective: an essential oil that protects the central nervous system (CNS) against injury due to both acute (e.g., trauma or stroke) and chronic neurodegenerative disorders.
Parturient:an essential oil that helps to ease delivery in childbirth
Restorative:an essential oil that strengthens and revives the body systems
Rubefacient: an essential oil that increases cutaneous blood flow to a local area; causes reddening and warming of the skin
Sedative:an essential oil that has a calming effect, relieving anxiety and tension
Spasmolytic (syn. antispasmodic): an essential oil that can prevent or ease spasms or cramps in the muscles of the body
Stimulant:an essential oil that increases body or organ function and activity
Stomachic:digestive aid and tonic, improving appetite
Styptic:an essential oil that helps control bleeding
Sudorific:an essential oil that causes sweating
Tonic:improves bodily performance
Uterine relaxant:an essential oil that relaxes the uterus
Vasoconstrictor:an essential oil that decreases blood flow by narrowing the blood vessels
Vermifuge:an essential oil that expels worms from the intestines
Vulnerary: an essential oil that promotes wound healing, particularly skin wounds