Foundations of Aromatherapy

Helichrysum

Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don fil.

Watch: About Helichrysum with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Helichrysum, Italian helichrysum
Scientific name: Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G.Don
Botanical family: Asteraceae
Conservation status: Least concern¹

Description: There are over 600 species in the Helichrysum genus occurring in temperate regions throughout the world. The genus includes annuals, herbaceous perennials and shrubs. All species of helichrysum thrive in sunshine, and enjoy growing in arid, sandy, stony areas and along mountainsides.

Also known as Curry Plant, Helichrysum italicum is an iconic flowering plant in the Asteraceae family native to the Mediterranean. Helichrysum italicum is a xerophytic shrub adapted to survive in an environment with little liquid water that grows 30 to 70 centimeters high. The plant is branched at the base and features small, linear, hairy leaves. It’s characterized by an overall grey hue until the appearance of golden flowerheads in June and July. Helichrysum thrives in dry, rocky regions at a stunning range of altitudes, from sea level to over 2,000 meters.

Helichrysum’s name comes from the Greek helios; “sun,” and krysos, which means “gold,” referring to helichrysum’s sunny yellow flowerheads. The color is striking in the light of full sun, a brilliance that persists even in the dried plant. In central Sardinia the flowerheads are fed to silkworms to produce a naturally yellow silk which is used in the production of traditional garments. The ancient Romans and Greeks reportedly decorated the statues of gods with wreaths of helichrysum flowerheads.

Helichrysum has a complex aroma; rosy, spicy, with notes of licorice, curry, and tobacco. It has a long history of use in human and veterinary medicine to treat respiratory and digestive problems, and for wound healing. Olive oil infusions of H. italicum were applied topically to burns, from both sun and fire.

All major medical treatises of the Greco-Roman tradition comment on helichrysum, and mention its use in joint health, liver protection, and to treat respiratory infections. Theophrastus thought of helichrysum as a mind-altering plant, purportedly due to its use in ritual fumigations. A species of helichrysum native to Africa has been found to contain the cannabinoid cannabigerol (CBG), but this constituent is thought to be non-psychotropic.²

Modern Popularity

Helichrysum is a relative newcomer to the practice and industry of aromatherapy. According to Schnaubelt (1999) “The story of the essential oil of Helichrysum italicum is a perfect example of how a few individuals acting decisively can make a difference in the world. Essential oil catalogs prior to the early 1980’s do not list Helichrysum italicum. Today, Helichrysum essential oil is offered on virtually every ambitious aromatherapy list.” It could be said, that Kurt Schnaubelt popularized the work of Pierre Franchomme and Daniel Penoel through the aromatherapy courses at the Pacific Institute of Aromatherapy as well as through his (Schnaubelt’s) earlier books: Advanced Aromatherapy and Medical Aromatherapy.

“Its effects are so convincing that it has never met with any kind of criticism despite the absence of data on its effectiveness. Helichrysum oil demonstrates that anecdotal evidence can create a reality without the help of industrially sponsored science. Helichrysum is more predictable in its action than almost any other oil and is produced and sold by small enterprises that understand the needs of the aromatherapy market.³”

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Counties of origin: France, Italy, Corsica (French Island), Bosnia
Part of plant used: Flowers and flowering tops
Essential oil yield: 0.67% (v/w)
Extraction method: Steam distillation
Color of oil: yellowish to reddish color

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Forty-five unique components make up 84.5 to 94.2% of Helichrysum italicum essential oil. The core components include: neryl acetate (32.38-51.4%), supported by monoterpenes (α-pinene), sesquiterpinols (including ar curcumene, the eudesmols, and y-curcumene) and diketones.

Monoterpenes: α-pinene (0.8-17.2%), camphene (0.2-1.6%), β-pinene (0.2-0.7%),
myrcene (0.04%), limonene (1.7-4.7%), terpinolene (0.2-0.4%)
Monoterpene alcohols: linalool (0.3-2.7%), borneol (0.05%), α-terpineol (0.7-1.4%), nerol (0.24-3.9%)
Sesquiterpene alcohols: guaiol (1.5%), β-eudesmol (1.2-2.5%), α-eudesmol (1.4-6.9%), italicene (0.4-2.1%), ar-curcumene (1-1.8%), y-curcumene (3.9-13.6%), eudesm-5-en-11-ol (2.8-6.1%)
Esters: neryl acetate (32.38-51.4%), geranyl propionate (3.8%), neryl propionate (3.9-5.9%)
Ketones (diketones): 2-nonanone (0.2-0.3%), 3,5 dimethyloctane-4,6-dione (0.92-4.1%), 4,6,9-trimethyldec-8-en-3,5-dione (2.3-5.9%), italidione i mw=210 (8.19%), italidione ii mw=224 (2.59%), italidione iii mw=238 (1.55-1.76%)
Ethers (oxides): 1,8 cineole (0.3-0.9%), nerol oxide (0.5-1.5%)^4,5

NOTE: Differences in chemical composition occur based upon country of origin.

SAFETY INFORMATION

• Considered to be safe when applied diluted or undiluted (when necessary or indicated)
• No known contraindications.
• GRAS status

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Skin

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Spicy, warm, and herbaceous
Blending factor: 3 – 5
Note: Mid note
Blends well with: Carrot seed, German chamomile, Rosemary ct. verbenone, Sage (Salvia officinalis), Lavender, Roman chamomile, Cistus/Rockrose, Lavendin

CORE INDICATIONS

• First aid: First aid remedy for bruises, strains, sprains, tissue trauma (apply undiluted)
• Circulatory system: varicose veins, bruises, broken capillaries, Raynaud’s disease, hemorrhoids (C+++)
• Digestive system: rectal fissures (C+++)
• Musculoskeletal system: joint pain, rheumatoid arthritis, carpel tunnel, arthritis (C+++)
• Nervous system: neuralgia, pain, inflammation (C+++)
• Skin: acne, chronic dermatitis, eczema, scar tissue reduction/to support healthy scar tissue formation, burns, dermal inflammation, cuts and wounds, bruises, radiation burns, Herpes simplex, tissue trauma, broken capillaries, stretch marks, dry itchy skin, varicose veins, rosacea, psoriasis, aging skin (C+++)
• Psyche/emotion: mental unrest, irritability, grief and bereavement, inability to heal or overcome adversity, emotional trauma, old emotional scars, anxiety, agitation, acute fear or anger, emotional burnout (I+++, C++)

Scots Pine

Pinus sylvestris L.

Watch: About Scots Pine with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: Scots pine
Scientific name: Pinus sylvestris L.
Botanical family: Pinaceae
Conservation status: Least concern¹

Description: Scots pine is a fast-growing needled evergreen in the Pinaceae family native to Northern Europe and Northern Asia. The tree is conical to columnar with distinctive flaking red-brown/orange bark that may grow up to 100 feet tall in the wild. Scots pines typically have twisted blue-green needles up to three inches long in bundles of two. Cones are grey to light brown, up to three inches long. Scots pine has been naturalized in parts of the northeastern and north-central United States.

Pinus sylvestris grows best in moist, acidic, well-drained soils, in full sun. The tree tolerates a variety of soil types, but requires good drainage. Scots pine prefers cool summer climates and suffers in heat and humidity.

The genus name Pinus is derived from the Latin for “pines,” while the specific epithet sylvestris refers to forests.²

Ethnobotany: Scots pine has been used for culinary and medicinal purposes. As a family food, the inner bark is dried and ground into a flour used for baking bread or mixed in with oatmeal. The tree is valued medicinally for its antiseptic properties and ameliorative effect on the respiratory system. Turpentine extracted from the resin has been used to relieve rheumatism, and as an antiseptic, diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient, and vermifuge. Leaves and shoots were added to bath water as a remedy for fatigue, nervous exhaustion, sleeplessness, and skin irritations.³

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: France
Part of plant used: Pine needles
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 0.25 – 0.35%
Color of oil: Clear

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Fifty to sixty-five+ components make up 99.2% of the essential oil of Pinus sylvestris. Core components include: α-pinene (18.5-55.76%) and delta-3-carene (11.1-23.2%). Various chemotypes of Pinus sylvestris are known including: ct. b-pinene/delta-3-carene⁴, ct. low delta-3-carene and ct. delta-3-carene rich.⁵

Monoterpenes: α-pinene (18.5-55.76%), β-myrcene (2.95-9.03%), β-pinene (0.6-18.4%), camphene (1.79-8.5%), ocimene (0.3-1.8%), terpinolene (tr-2.4%), sabinene (0.13-1%), α-phellandrene (0.17-3.6%), β-phellandrene (1-10.69%), p-cymene (t-2.01%), delta-3-carene (6.96-28+%), limonene (0.4-9.74%), α-terpinene (t-3.2%)
Sesquiterpenes: β-caryophyllene (2.06-7%), δ-cadinene (1.75-11.6%), germacrene D (1.63-8.7%)
Monoterpene alcohols: borneol (0.1-5.8%), α-terpineol (0.87%)
Sesquiterpene alcohols: α-cadinol (1.9-5.9%)
Esters: bornyl acetate (0.1-8.8%), cis-sabinene hydrate (0.06%)
Ethers (oxides): 1,8 cineole (0 – 1%)^6,7,8,9

Did you know?

One of the components that gives pine essential oil its aroma
is the component bornyl acetate!¹⁰

SAFETY INFORMATION

• Caution: Due to the monoterpene content, it is important that the essential oil be stored properly (e.g., in a dark container in the refrigerator or in a cold room away from sunlight and heat). Oxidized essential oils should not be used in body care products or formulations designed for dermal application. The essential oil can, however, be used for cleaning products.
• Average shelf life for monoterpene-rich essential oils, when stored correctly is 1-3 years.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

*In French aromatic medicine, Scots pine essential oil has a tropism for lymphatic and ovarian congestion.

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Respiratory, Musculoskeletal

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Balsamic, woody, piney
Blending factor: 6
Note: Top
Blends well with: black pepper, cedar (Juniperus virginiana), Atlas cedar, cypress, inula, juniper berry, hemlock, lavender, lemon, sweet marjoram, niaouli, petitgrain, other pine species, sandalwood, black spruce, valerian, ylang ylang
Substitutions: Maritime Pine, black spruce

CORE INDICATIONS

• Lymphatic system: pine is indicated for lymphatic and ovarian congestion¹⁴, pelvis congestion, prostatic congestion (C+++, Sz+++, O+)
• Musculoskeletal system: Muscular aches and pains, arthritis, rheumatism, neuralgia, joint pain, sciatica, muscle cramps (C+++)
• Nervous system: adrenal depletion/fatigue, nervous asthenia (C+++ O+++, I+++, D+++, Sp+)
• Respiratory system: Expands breathing allowing more oxygen in the body, asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, moist coughs, sinusitis, sore throat, allergies, respiratory infections, reduces the overproduction of mucus¹⁵ (I+++, D+++, SI+++, C+, Fb+)

Note: Since pine oil has a drying effect, it should not be used at the beginning state of a respiratory infection, when the mucus is still hard and the cough is dry and painful. It is appropriate to use at the end of the illness, when the drying of the lungs after a period of mucus-overproduction is desired. Pine is perfect to diffuse during this time.¹⁶

• Skin: dull skin due to poor circulation, moist eczema, excess sweating (C+++, Fb++)
• Psyche/emotion: nervous exhaustion, fatigue, depression, mental fatigue (I+++, D+++, C++, Fb+, Sp++)

RESEARCH

In Vitro studies

• Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) essential oil may be utilized as an airborne antimicrobial.^18,19
  This study used paper disc-agar diffusion and broth dilution techniques to observe the antifungal action of pine oil and its vapor. The researchers concluded that pine oil is an effective antimicrobial against the microorganisms most frequently isolated from the human environment. Pine essential oil exhibited antibacterial, minor antifungal, and was effective against yeasts.²⁰
• Pinus sylvestris essential oil exhibits anticarcinogenic activity in human breast cancer cells.²¹

General

• Inhalation of volatile components from conifers such as Pine (Pinus sylvestris) essential oil can improve immune function.²²

Mandarin

Citrus reticulata Blanco

Watch: About Mandarin with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Mandarin, tangerine
Scientific name: Citrus reticulata Blanco
Botanical family: Rutaceae
Conservation status: Not defined

Description: Mandarin is a small evergreen tree in the Rutaceae family, likely native to Southeast Asia. The tree grows to approximately 8 meters tall, with long, narrow, dark green leaves, and axillary thorns. The star-shaped white flowers bloom in spring and summer, followed by reddish-orange fruits that appear in autumn. These are small and oblate, sweet, with a thin peel. The tree is widely cultivated in warm temperate and tropical regions, and grows best in full sun in moist, well-drained soil.¹

Two unique essential oils are produced from C. reticulata. Mandarin oil is derived from the outer peel, while mandarin petitgrain oil is prepared from a steam distillation of leaves, twigs, and sometimes unripe fruits. Mandarin oil is a common flavoring agent in sweets, soft drinks, and liqueurs, and an ingredient in cosmetics, perfumery, and indoor air fresheners.

The species name reticulata is derived from the Latin term for “netted,” which refers to the net-like fibrous strands found under the peel.

Ethnobotany: The fruits, peels, and seeds of mandarins have a rich history of culinary and traditional medicinal uses. The fruit is typically eaten fresh in salads and desserts, or juiced. In traditional Chinese medicine, the dried peel is used to regulate abnormal qi associated with stomach and respiratory maladies, immune system stress, and menstrual cramps.²

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Italy, Argentina
Part of plant used: Peel/zest of fruit
Extraction method: Expression or steam distilled
Essential oil yield: 0.5-3.5%
Color of oil: light yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Citrus reticulata essential oil has over 58+ unique components that make up 97.1% of the essential oil. Most of these components are present at less then 1%. The essential oil is rich in the monoterpene, d-limonene (50.42 – 92.36%). Other major components include: γ-terpinene (tr-36.7%), myrcene (1.3-2%), linalool (0.1-2.5%), sabinene (0.1-1.3%).^3,4,5

SAFETY INFORMATION

• One of the safest oils to use for all ages.
• Cautions: Due to the limonene content, it is important that the essential oil be stored properly (e.g., in a dark container in the refrigerator or in a cold room away from sunlight and heat). When limonene oxidizes, essential oils rich in this component can potentially cause dermal sensitization.⁶ Oxidized citrus essential oils should not be used in body care products or formulations designed for dermal application. The essential oil can, however, be used for cleaning products.
• Average shelf life for monoterpene-rich essential oils, when stored correctly is 1-3 years.
• GRAS status.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory⁷, antioxidant⁸, antiseptic, antispasmodic, anxiolytic⁹, carminative, digestive tonic, modulates the central nervous system, nervine, sedative, soothes the sympathetic nervous system

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Nervous, Psyche/emotion, Digestive

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Sweet, fresh, citrus
Blending factor: 7
Note: Top note, top to mid
Blends well with: Bergamot, black pepper, Roman chamomile, coriander seed, clary sage, geranium, jasmine, lavender, lavandin, lemon, myrrh, neroli, nutmeg, palmarosa, sandalwood, ylang ylang, yuzu
Substitution: Sweet orange

CORE INDICATIONS

• Digestive system: stress-related digestive upset, dyspepsia, colic, aerophagia (excessive and repetitive air swallowing), intestinal spasms, may stimulate appetite (especially after illness or depression) (O+++, C+++, I+++)
• Musculoskeletal system: tension caused by stress (C+++, I+++, D++)
• Nervous system: nervous tension, insomnia, nervous disorders, depression, headaches, hyperactivity in children, anxiety, stress (O+++, C+++, I+++, D+++, Sp+++)
• Reproductive/endocrine systems: PMS emotions or stress, birth and labor stress management¹⁰ (C+++, I+++, D+++)
• Skin: cellulite, acne, oily skin, edema (C+++)
• Psyche and emotion: temper tantrums, depression, anxiety, disturbed eating patterns, fear of physical contact, dislike of exercise, limited communication skills in children suffering from trauma, hyperactivity in children¹¹, nurturing, warming, sense of well-being, uplifting yet calming. (C+++, I+++, D+++, O++)

________________

NOTE: The Difference between Mandarin and Tangerine
Tangerine and mandarin trees are both botanically Citrus reticulata, yet they are two different varieties of this species. The mandarin originated in China and is cultivated in Europe. It is considered to have a superior aroma to U.S. tangerine, which is derived from the variety Citrus reticulata Blanco var. deliciosa. Arctander comments that the U.S. tangerine is much larger than the mandarin and has a different aroma; in his opinion, the U.S. tangerine is not a replacement for mandarin oil.¹² I have found both essential oils beautiful and unique.

RESEARCH

Animal Studies

• Citrus oils exhibit anxiolytic and sedative action. A study found that Citrus latifolia (Persian lime), Citrus reticulata (Mandarin) and Citrus aurantium (Bitter orange) essential oils countered anxiety and calmed rats without causing mobility problems.
• Essential oils obtained from ripe fruit peels of C. latifolia and C. reticulata produced anxiolytic and sedative effects.

Tea tree

Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel

Watch: About Tea Tree with Jade Shutes

Watch: Aromatic Plant Exploration with Tea Tree & Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: Tea tree
Scientific name: Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel
Botanical family: Myrtaceae
Conservation status: Not defined

Description: The genus Melaleuca belongs to the myrtle family (Myrtaceae) and includes about 250 species (including the paperbarks, some of which are cultivated as ornamentals). Most Melaleuca species are restricted to Australia. M. alternifolia bears fluffy, white masses of flowers from spring to early summer, and its narrow leaves help distinguish it from the similar species M. linariifolia, which has wider leaves and flattish-spherical fruits.¹ Melaleuca alternifolia is native to Australia, where it is found from Queensland to north-east New South Wales, at up to 300 m above sea level.

Captain James Cook, the 18th century explorer, is reported to have used tea tree leaves to brew a spicy tea, although the common name ‘tea tree’ has been applied to several plants in the genera Melaleuca and Leptospermum (also in Myrtaceae), so the exact species he used is unknown.²

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Australia, New Zealand
Part of plant used: Leaves
Extraction method: Steam distillation
Essential oil yield: 2.0 – 5.0%
Color of oil: Clear to pale yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

One hundred plus components make up the essential oil of tea tree. Core components include terpinen-4-ol (30-48%), -terpinene (10-28%), and eucalyptol (trace to 15%). Other components include:

Monoterpenes: terpinolene (1.5-5%), a-terpinene (3.09-13%), -terpinene (10-28%), p-cymene (0.5-8%), limonene (0.5-1.5%), sabinene (t-3.5%), a-pinene (1-6%)
Sesquiterpenes: aromadendrene (t-3%), gamma-cadinene (t-3%)
Monoterpenols: terpinen-4-ol (30-48%), a-terpineol (3.31%)
Ethers/oxides: 1,8 cineole (5.2%)^3,4

NOTE: The chemistry of tea tree, in particular its 1,8 cineole and terpinen-4-ol content, has been a subject of great debate, mostly for safety considerations. According to Kerr, the Australian Government has a standard for Tea tree essential oil which states that the 1,8 cineole content should not exceed 15% and the terpinen-4-ol content should be at least 30%.⁵

SAFETY INFORMATION

• No known contraindications or safety concerns.
• Avoid using oxidized tea tree essential oil on the skin or via the oral route. Tea tree has an average shelf life of 1-3 years when stored properly.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Digestive, Respiratory, Skin, Urinary
(antimicrobial)

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Spicy, warm, balsamic
Blending factor: 3
Notes: Mid, Mid to top
Blends well with: Pine species, black spruce, saro, manuka, ravintsara, blue tansy, rosemary (all chemotypes), eucalyptus (all species), monarda species, green myrtle, spike lavender (L. latifolia), cistus, thyme (all chemotypes), fir, niaouli, lavender

CORE INDICATIONS

• Digestive system: diarrhea, enteritis, intestinal parasites, dental hygiene, gum problems, infections of the mouth, mouth ulcers, oral thrush (C. albicans), esophageal candidiasis, canker sores, dental abscess, hemorrhoids, rectal fissures, gingivitis (O+++, RS+++,
• Lymph and Immune system: lowered or compromised immunity, lymph congestion (C+++, I++, D++, O+++)
• Reproductive system: leucorrhoea, vaginal candidiasis (O+++, VP+++)
• Respiratory system: colds, flu, bronchitis, rhinitis, sinusitis, congestion, coughs, sore throat, tonsillitis, ear infections, bacterial or viral respiratory infections (O+++, I+++, D+++, C+)
• Skin: acne, nail fungus, oily skins, abscesses, boils, cold sores¹¹, cuts, dandruff, herpes simplex¹², insect bites, lice, rashes, shingles, infected wounds, varicose ulcers, athlete’s foot, ringworm, inflamed skin conditions¹³, varicose veins, juvenile acne, acne rosacea, prevention of skin radiation burns, dermal mycoses (fungal infections) (C+++, Fb+++ (for foot fungas))
• Urinary system: cystitis, urethritis, urinary tract infection (O+++)

RESEARCH

Note: Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) has been extensively researched. Below represents but a small collection of this research.

Human Studies

• Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil exhibits anti-inflammatory activity.
  In this study, twenty-one volunteers were recruited to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil on histamine-induced inflammation. The group was divided into two: twenty-one participants applied 25 µL (microliters) of 100% tea tree oil to the study forearm and six participants applied 25 µL (microliters) of paraffin oil (the control). In the tea tree group, the developing edema to histamine was significantly reduced. The researchers concluded that tea tree exhibits anti-inflammatory activity which may be of benefit in treating hypersensitivities to insect allergens.¹⁴
• Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil is effective for treating dandruff.
  A 5% dilution of tea tree essential oil in shampoo was effective in the treatment of dandruff, potentially related to the yeast Pityrosporum ovale. Tea tree oil exhibited antifungal properties P. ovale and may be useful in the treatment of dandruff.¹⁵
• A 5ml solution consisting of tea tree, grapefruit, and eucalyptus (species not specified) essential oils used to rinse ulcers twice a day is found effective at reducing signs of infection and pus secretion and reducing foul odor association with necrotic ulcers. Some patients have also reported a reduction in pain levels.¹⁶
• Two case studies involving the use of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil via inhalation revealed the potential of tea tree essential oil in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Both patients received a patented tea tree oil (monoterpenes had been removed) in aerosol canisters which they inhaled over a period of 5 – 10 days. For both patients there was a negative for infection after 4-5 days of using tea tree aerosol.¹⁷

Animal Studies

• Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil and terpinen-4-ol effective antifungal against mucosal candiasis.¹⁸
• Inhaled tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil demonstrates anti-inflammatory activity.¹⁹

In Vitro Studies

• Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil and its active component, terpinen-4-ol exhibits anti-viral activity against influenza virus.²⁰
• Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil exhibits effective antifungal activity against Candida albicans infection and may be indicated in the treatment of vaginal candidiasis.²¹
• Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil and terpinen-4-ol exhibit anti-proliferative activity against tumor cells.²²
• Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil exhibits anti-candidal activity and inhibition the filamentous form of Candida albicans. Tea tree may be useful in the treatment of oral candidiasis.²³

Vetiver

Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash ex Small

Watch: About Vetiver with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: Vetiver
Scientific name: Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty
Synonym: Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash
Botanical family: Poaceae
Conservation status: Not defined

Description: Commonly known as ruh khus, and previously known as Vetiveria zizanioides, vetiver is a perennial grass in the Poaceae family native to tropical Asia. Vetiver is a large, tufted bunchgrass that can grow up to 1.5 metres tall. Leaves and stems are rigid and erect; small brown-purple flowers are borne in long spikes. The roots are strongly aromatic, and grow downward into the soil to depths of over 3 meters.

C. zizanioides has been introduced into the tropics of both hemispheres; it grows wild in some regions. Vetiver is drought-resistant and is planted as a hedge in dryland restoration to prevent soil erosion. Vetiver essential oil is extracted from the aromatic roots.¹

Vetiver thrives in every soil type up to altitudes of 2000 meters, though the plant prefers to grow in well-drained sand.

Ethnobotany: C. zizanioides has a long history of use in traditional medicines. It was valued as a carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic, and emmenagogue. Vetiver was renowned as a parasitic and anthelmintic agent, and was considered to be an alexiteric (preservative against poisons and venoms); a paste of the fresh roots was applied to snakebites and scorpion stings. In Trinidad vetiver tea was used as a remedy for flu, colic, nausea, and pleurisy. In the Philippines and Thailand, a decoction of the root was taken to dissolve gallstones, and an infusion of the root was taken to cool fevers and relieve stomach disorders. Topical preparations were used to relieve the pain of skin burns, and a paste made of the leaves was used to ease rheumatism, lumbago, and sprains. In West Bengal a decoction of the stem was used to treat urinary tract infections.²

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Haiti, Sri Lanka, India
Part of plant used: Roots of grass
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 2-3%
Color of oil: Golden orange to dark brown, viscous oil

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Over one hundred and fifty-five unique components have been identified in Vetiver essential oil. Vetiver is considered to be one of the most complex essential oils. The main components include a group of sesquiterpenes (cadenene, cloven, amorphine, b-vetivenene, aromadendrine, junipene); sesquiterpenols (khusinol, epiglobulol, spathulenol, khusimol [0.6-8.9%], khusian-2-ol [1.8-2.3%], khusol); ketones (a-vetivone [8.4-13.3%], b-vetivone [2.2-3.7%], khusimone [1.2-2.3%], nootkatone); and the ester, khusinol acetate.^3,4,5

SAFETY INFORMATION

• No known contraindications.
• Dermal caution: May contain isoeugenol, which is listed as a fragrance allergen.⁶

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Nervous, Psyche/emotion, Musculoskeletal, Skin

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Sweet, earthy, warm, woody, deep
Blending factor: 1
Note: Base note
Blends well with: bergamot, cistus, cypress, combava petitgrain, ginger, grapefruit, lavender, lemon, lime, myrrh, palmarosa, patchouli, neroli, black spruce, ylang ylang
Substitutions: patchouli, ginger

CORE INDICATIONS

• Circulatory system: varicose veins, poor circulation (C+++)
• Musculoskeletal system: muscular aches and pains, sprains, stiffness, muscle tension, arthritis, rheumatism (C+++)
• Nervous system: debility, nervous tension, insomnia (C+++, I+++)
• Reproductive system: menopause, postnatal depression, PMS, reduced or lowered sex drive, amenorrhea (C+++, I+++)
• Skin: acne, inflamed conditions, oily skin (due to slight astringent-like effect), preventative for stretch marks and wrinkles, wound care, irritated skin, rashes, and topical bacterial or fungal infections²⁰(C+++)
• Psyche/emotion: Grounding, centering, provides a sense of security, especially useful when one is feeling anxious or has a lot of thoughts swirling around with little clarity, calming and balancing when there is over-sensitivity, physical and mental burnout, strengthens and stabilizes, instills confidence, settles nerves before an ordeal (lecture, dentist), anxiety, depression (C+++, I+++)
  _____________
• Ayurveda: Cools Pitta, grounds Vata (use with other essential oils that are warming)
• Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM): In TCM, vetiver is cool and moist energy that can be used to clear heat while also nourishing, calming, and uplifting.²¹

RESEARCH

Human Studies

• Inhalation of volatiles emitted from the roots of Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) increases ability to focus and relieves stress.²²

Animal Studies

• Oral administration of vetiver essential oil exhibits sedative effects similar to diazepam.²³

In vitro

• Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) exhibits anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity.²⁴

Watch: About Vetiver

Rosemary

Watch: About Rosemary with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: Rosemary
Scientific name: Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.syn. Rosmarinus officinalis L.

Before 2017, it was recognized under the scientific designation Rosmarinus officinalis, which is currently considered a synonym. Salvia rosmarinus is the accepted scientific name for Rosemary.

Botanical family: Lamiaceae
Conservation status: Least concern

Description: Rosemary is a perennial evergreen herb in the Lamiaceae family native to the Mediterranean. This aromatic herb is characterized by its fragrant needle-like leaves, which are dark green on the upper surface and lighter to white underneath. The leaves are arranged oppositely on the woody stems and exude a distinct pine-like aroma when crushed.

The plant typically grows to 1 meter tall, though some reach heights of 2 meters. The plant produces small, two-lipped flowers ranging from pale blue to lavender.

The plant has been naturalized throughout Europe and is widely cultivated for its pungent, aromatic, bitter leaves. These are commonly used as a culinary spice and added to savory dishes.

Ethnobotany: In folk medicine, rosemary was believed to strengthen memory; in literature and folklore, it signifies remembrance and fidelity. Rosemary was traditionally used as an aromatic ingredient in tonics and liniments and valued as a stimulant. In modern times, it is used in body care products and vermouth production.

Rosemary has been used in traditional systems of medicine as a remedy for digestive upset and was applied topically to relieve low back and muscle pain. In China, rosemary was mixed with borax and applied to the head to prevent baldness. A similar formula was employed in Europe to fend off dandruff. Rosemary has been widely used to alleviate headaches, as well as gas, indigestion, colds, and nervous tension.

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Morocco, France, Spain, South Africa, Tunisia
Part of plant used: Leaves and flowering tops
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 1.5-2.5% (v/w)
Color of oil: Clear – pale yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Chemotypes are essential oils extracted from one botanical species yet yield essential oils of distinctly different and unique chemical compositions (usually, one chemical compound is higher than the norm). Environmental conditions such as light, soil, temperature, moisture, climatic influence, and altitude, as well as geographic area, can all affect the chemistry of a given species.

There are 6+ known chemotypes for Rosemary:

• ct. 1,8 cineole
• ct. camphor
• ct. verbenone
• ct. ⍺-pinene
• ct. bornyl acetate (upwards of 20.27%)

We will focus on the three most commonly available chemotypes: cineole, camphor, and verbenone. Their core composition is very similar, yet some significant differences make them chemotypes.

SAFETY INFORMATION

ct. 1,8 cineole

• Caution for children: Avoid applying 1,8 cineole-rich essential oils to the face or near the nose of infants and children under the age of 5. Do not instill 1,8 cineole-rich essential oils into the nose of infants or children.
• Internal contraindication: Essential oils rich in 1,8 cineole should not be used with infants or young children via the internal route (oral, rectal suppositories, etc.)

ct. verbenone

• Cautions: May be neurotoxic, based on camphor content. (oral)

ct. camphor

• Cautions: May be neurotoxic, based on camphor content. (oral)

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Fresh, strong, vibrant, and herbaceous
Blending factor: 2-3
Notes: Top to mid
Blends well with: Eucalyptus sp., laurel, lemon, tea tree, juniper berry, lemongrass, monarda, rosalina, grapefruit, thyme ct. thymol or ct. linalool, lemongrass
Substitutions: Eucalyptus globulus or E. radiata (respiratory), Helichrysum or Carrot seed (wound healing)

CORE INDICATIONS

FOR EACH CHEMOTYPE

RESEARCH

Human studies

• Dermal application of rosemary ct. cineole (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil increased autonomic arousal (stimulating effect) and made participants feel more attentive, alert, vigorous and more cheerful.

In this 2009 study, designed to study the effect of rosemary essential oil when applied to the skin, each participant had oxygen supplied through an inhalation set (like an oxygen mask) to avoid physiological reactions due to the inhalation of the aroma. The study included thirty-five participants. Participants were placed in one of two groups: the rosemary group or the control group. The control group had 20 participants, while the rosemary group had 15 participants.

The rosemary group applied 1ml of a 20% (w/w) dilution of rosemary in sweet almond oil to the skin of the lower abdomen. They were instructed to massage the oil into the skin for 5 minutes. The control group followed the same protocol but with only sweet almond oil.

The physiological parameters studied included systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, skin temperature, breathing rate, and pulse rate. Participants rated their mental and emotional state using specific words such as relaxed, vigor, calmness, attentiveness, alertness, and mood.

Results showed that dermal application of rosemary essential oil significantly increased blood pressure (an increase in sympathetic tone/increase in autonomic arousal) and increased breathing rate. Participants in the rosemary group rated themselves as more alert, attentive, and cheerful than the control group participants or before the administration of rosemary essential oil.

These findings are likely to represent an energizing and stimulating effect of the rosemary essential oil and provide some evidence for the usage of the rosemary essential oil for its stimulating properties as well as to relieve stress.

Animal Studies

• The inhalation of Rosemary ct. camphor had an anti-stress effect on mice by decreasing serum corticosterone levels and increasing brain dopamine levels. The researchers speculated that the inhalation of rosemary is capable of regulating activities of the HPA axis and, hence, can be of potential benefit in the treatment of clinical depression and stress-related mood disorders

In Vitro

• Rosemary ct. cineole (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil exhibits antibacterial activity.
• Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil chemotypes exhibit antifungal activity, with ct. camphor and ct. a-pinene was more effective against Candida albicans.
• Rosemary ct. cineole (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil exhibits antioxidant activity.

Frankincense

Boswellia sacra Flueck. syn. Boswellia carteri Birdw.

Watch: About Frankincense with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Frankincense
Scientific name: Boswellia sacra Flueck.
Synonym: Boswellia carteri Birdw.
Botanical family: Burseraceae
Conservation status: Near threatened

Description: A moderate to large-sized branching tree. Leaves are unequally pinnated, the leaflets serrated and sometimes alternate. The flowers are small and white, or a pale rose color.

Frankincense is an oleo-gum resin harvested by making incisions in the trunk of the tree in a process is known as “striping.” Exuded sap hardens into resinous droplets called “tears,” which can then be collected. The chemical composition of frankincense resins is influenced by differences in soil and climate.

Boswellia species, such as Boswellia sacra, are known for their resilience and can grow directly out of solid rock. Boswellia flourishes in such inhospitable environments by virtue of a bulbous, disk-like swelling of the trunk, which secures the tree to its mooring during violent storms. This structure is not found in trees growing in rocky gravel or soil.

Ethnobotany: Natural resins have played a significant role in many cultures over the course of history. Frankincense has been used medicinally, as an adhesive, in cosmetic preparations, as fragrance in daily rituals and religious ceremonies, as a coating material, and, famously, in embalming. Resins were burned during sacrificial ceremonies, in daily rituals to ward off evil spirits, and to honor the living as well as the dead. Gum-resin extracts of Boswellia serrata have been traditionally used in folk medicine to treat myriad chronic inflammatory diseases.

The word frankincense is derived from the old French franc encens, which translates to “high quality incense.” The word franc in French meant “noble” or “pure”.

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Somalia, India, North Africa, Oman
Part of plant used: Resin
Extraction method: Steam distilled gum, white resin
Essential oil yield: 3-9%
Color of oil: Pale yellow, clear

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Rich in monoterpenes (α-pinene and d-limonene).

SAFETY INFORMATION

• Caution: Due to the monoterpene content, it is important that the essential oil be stored properly (e.g., in a dark container in the refrigerator or in a cold room away from sunlight and heat). Oxidized essential oils should not be used in body care products or formulations designed for dermal application. The essential oil can, however, be used for cleaning products.
• When stored correctly, the average shelf life for monoterpene-rich essential oils is 1-3 years.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Skin, Immunity, Respiratory

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Clean, fresh, earthy, woody
Blending factor: 4 to 5
Notes: Middle note, Mid-Base note
Blends well with: Bergamot mint, black pepper, Himalayan cedar, Roman chamomile, cistus, copaiba, cypress, blue gum eucalyptus, goldenrod, lavender, lemon, lemongrass, lime, mandarin, myrrh, neroli, niaouli, sweet orange, patchouli, Scots pine, pinon pine, rose, sandalwood, hemlock spruce, yuzu

CORE INDICATIONS

Immune system: reduced or compromised immunity (I+++, O+++, D+++)

Musculoskeletal system: swollen joints, muscular aches and pains, arthritis (C+++)

Respiratory system: bronchitis, sinus congestion, asthma (I+++, C+++, D++)

Skin: mature skin, wrinkles, scar tissue, postoperative wound healing (once sutures are removed), eczema, acne, inflamed skin conditions, blackheads, hives, soothing to dry irritated skin (C+++)

Psyche/emotion: anxiety, tension, meditative, supports reflection and introspection, healing on all levels of spirit and emotion, stills the mind, inability to focus, spiritual consciousness, tranquility, wonderful oil to demonstrate mind-body connection, soothes the spirit (I+++, D+++, C++)
_______________

Ayurveda: excess vata represented as anxiety, fear, or dry conditions, soothing to prana vata, cools pitta
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM): In TCM, frankincense can smooth the flow of stagnant Qi energy.

Lemongrass

Cymbopogon citratus (DC. ex Nees) Stapf syn. Andropogon citratus DC. ex Nees

Watch: About Lemongrass with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common names: Lemongrass, West Indian lemon grass, Citronella, citronella grass
Scientific name: Cymbopogon citratus (DC. ex Nees) Stapf
Synonym: Andropogon citratus DC. ex Nees
Botanical family: Poaceae
Conservation status: Not defined

Description: Cymbopogon citratus is a perennial rhizomatous grass in the Poaceae family native to India and Sri Lanka. Lemongrass is up to two meters tall, with short rhizomes and densely tufted fibrous roots. The leaf sheaths are glabrous and greenish inside, while the leaf blades are glaucous and rough in texture. Once established, lemongrass can spread quickly, with a risk of becoming invasive in disturbed areas. C. Citratus has been introduced and cultivated in Africa, South and Central America, the West Indies, China, and Southeast Asia.

Ethnobotany: Lemongrass has a history of use in food and traditional medicine as a remedy for gastrointestinal ailments, fevers, and hypertension. The leaf is typically prepared as a tea to relieve cough, flu, gingivitis, digestive problems, and stomachache.¹

Lemongrass has been valued for its antispasmodic, hypotensive, anticonvulsant, analgesic, antiemetic, antitussive, antirheumatic, and antiseptic properties.²

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Nepal, West Indies
Part of plant used: Grass
Extraction method: Distillation
Essential oil yield: 0.25-0.6%
Color of oil: Colorless, light yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Twenty-five+ unique components make up 97.82% of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil. The core components include: neral (33.31%) and geranial (39.53%).

Monoterpenes: ⍺-pinene, myrcene (7.45-11.41%), (Z)-b-ocimene (0.69%), (E)-b-ocimene (0.32-0.34%), limonene (0.02-0.4%), terpinolene (1.3%)
Sesquiterpenes: β-elemene (1.4%), ⍺-farnesene (0.05-0.3%), bicyclogermacrene (1.2%), germacrene D (0.2%), b-caryophyllene (0.23%), a-farnesene (0.05%), b-farnesene (0.15%)
Aldehydes: neral (31.52-33.31%), geranial (37.8-45.2%), citronellal (0.29%)
Esters: geranyl acetate (0.24-1.2%), sabinene hydrate (0.3%), neryl acetate (0.07%), geranyl formate (0.07%)
Monoterpenols: geraniol (3.05-5.5%), linalool (1.29%), citronellol (0.2%)
Phenols: carvacrol (0.23)^3,4,5,6

There are two species of lemongrass commonly available within the aromatherapy world: Cymbopogon citratus and Cymbopogon flexuosus. The main differences between C. citratus and C. flexuosus is a slight difference in citral, with a higher content of b-caryophyllene in C. flexuosus and with C. citratus being considerably richer in myrcene. There are slight differences in other minor components, however the two essential oils may be used interchangeably.

SAFETY INFORMATION

• GRAS status.
• Dermal Caution: Use caution when applying lemongrass essential oil to hypersensitive or diseased or damaged skin.
• Always dilute in carrier oil for application to the skin.
• Personal experience: I use lemongrass extensively to clean my house, and I always use gloves while cleaning. A friend of mine cleaned her house with lemongrass, and when I saw her a few days later she had dermatitis on both hands. (It took about two weeks for it to clear.) We surmised that it was because she did not wear gloves while cleaning. Lesson: if you are going to clean with lemongrass in warm water, use gloves!

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

Anti-allergy¹¹, antiseptic, antifungal^12,13, antiviral, anti-inflammatory^14,15, anti-nociceptive²³, antimicrobial¹⁶, antibiofilm¹⁷, digestive, insect repellent, mosquito repellent, nervine, sedative, strengthens connective tissue

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Musculoskeletal

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Lemony, strong
Blending factor: 1
Notes: Top, top to mid
Blends well with: Cedarwood, clove bud, cypress, geranium, ginger, lavender, Litsea cubeba, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, peppermint, black spruce, ylang ylang
Substitution: Litsea cubeba, East Indian Lemongrass

CORE INDICATIONS

• General properties: an excellent household cleaner, can be added to castile soap to clean wood floors, bathrooms, dishes, counters, add to jojoba and clean wood tables, use in diffusers to reduce microbes and bacteria in the air, can be used with borax for laundry
• Circulatory system: poor or sluggish circulation, varicose veins (C+++)
• Lymphatic and Immune systems: lowered immune response, compromised immunity, lymph drainage (C+++, O+)
• Musculoskeletal system: muscular aches and pains, tired and sore muscles, sprains, bruises, pain in joints, muscle weakness (C+++)
• Nervous system: nervous exhaustion (C+++)
• Respiratory system: antiseptic, sinus congestion, lowered immune response for respiratory illness, respiratory infection¹⁸ (C+++, I+++)
• Skin: acne, oily skin, boils, athletes foot, cellulite, excessive sweating, has a special tightening effect on the elastin fibers in the corium and in the subcutis¹⁹, weakness of connective tissue²⁰, applicable to breast treatment (tightening)²¹, ringworm²² **Always dilute down in a vegetable oil or other base before applying to the skin! (C+++)
• Psyche/emotion: fatigue, grieving process, strengthening during weak emotional period, transition, release work (C+++, I+++)
  _________________
• Ayurveda: Lemongrass is used to stimulate Agni without aggravating Pitta. Relieves gas and cramps by regulating samana and apana Vayu. It is drying to avalambaka Kapha and helps to expectorate excess phlegm. Clearing to hot lung infections with yellow mucus. Lemongrass has an affinity for rasa and raktadhatu and is helping with painful menses due to inflammation or spasm in uterus from high Pitta and Vata.²³
• Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM): In TCM, lemongrass is indicated to dispel wind and free network vessels, warm center and relieve pain. Used for common cold with headache, diarrhea, wind-cold impediment pain, cold pain in stomach duct and abdomen, knocks and falls.²⁴
  _______________

RESEARCH

Human Studies

One pilot study published in the Brazilian Annals of Dermatology in 2013 found that lemongrass essential oil may be a good candidate for clinical application for treatment of Tinea versicolor, ‘a superficial mycosis caused by yeasts of the genus Malassezia spp., prevalent in tropical countries and especially affecting individuals with diminished immunity status’.²⁵

Animal Studies

• Oral use of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil (0.5-0.1g/kg) exhibits anxiolytic, sedative and anticonvulsive activity in Swiss male mice.²⁶
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) and Eucalyptus citriodora essential oils exhibit anti-inflammatory properties.²⁷
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil exhibits antinociceptive activity in mice.²⁸

In Vitro Studies

• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil exhibits antimycotic (antifungal) activity against Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus niger growth.²⁹
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) demonstrates fungitoxic activity against some respiratory pathogenic species of Aspergillus.³⁰
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) exhibits anxiolytic activity.
  The results of this study suggested that the interaction of lemongrass essential oil with the GABA(A) receptor-benzodiazepine complex causes the anxiolytic activity.³¹
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil exhibits anti-inflammatory activity.³²
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil exhibits powerful antibacterial activity.
  Gaseous lemongrass (C. citratus) as well as its active component, citral, demonstrated powerful antibacterial activity against Haemophilus influenzae, penicillin-susceptible and resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus in vitro. The authors concluded that high vapor concentration exposures for short periods of time cause the most effective antimicrobial activity.³³
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil exhibits anticandidal activity.^34,35
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil exhibits potent antiviral activity against HSV-1 virus. This study found that lemongrass possessed the strongest antiviral activity of the essential oils being compared and was the most effective essential oil against HSV-1 infection, in particular. When topically applied, even at a concentration of 0.1%, lemongrass showed stronger antiviral activity than tea tree, making it a good choice to combat recurrences of HSV-1.³⁶ (HSV-1 = Herpes simplex virus type-1)
• Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil mixed in salt and warm water can be effective in treating Trichophyton mentagrophytes (Tinea pedis)³⁷.

Lemon

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. syn. C. medica ssp. limonium Hook, syn. C. limonium Risso

Watch: About Lemon Essential Oil with Jade Shutes

BOTANICAL INFORMATION

Common name: lemon
Scientific name: Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Synonyms: C. medica ssp. limonum Hook, syn. C. limonum Risso
Botanical family: Rutaceae
Conservation status: Not defined

Description: Lemon is an evergreen tree in the Rutaceae family that typically grows 2.5-3 meters in height. Leaves are lanceolate, and flowers are white with a purple hue at the edge of the petals. The flowers congregate in small clusters, or are arranged individually, growing in leaf axils. The fruit of Citrus limon is an oval, elongated pointed green berry that ripens to its characteristic yellow color. The berry is filled with juicy pulp divided in segments. The pericarp is composed of three layers: the thin, wax-covered exocarp, the middle mesocarp, which contains oil vesicles and carotenoid dyes, and spongy white parenchymal tissue, and the inner endocarp, or ‘fruit flesh,’ which is compartmentalized by the mesocarp parenchyma.

The origin of C. limon is not accurately known, but the tree is considered to be native to North-Western or North-Eastern India. Lemon trees thrive in sunshine, and grow best on loamy, well-drained, moist soils.

Lemon is largely recognized as a cultivated species. C. limon has been grown in southern Italy since the 3rd century AD, and in Iraq and Egypt dating back to 700 AD. The United States is currently the world’s largest producer of lemons, followed by Italy, Spain, Argentina, and Brazil.

Ethnobotany: In traditional systems of medicine, lemon juice was used to treat high blood pressure, the common cold, and irregular menstruation. The essential oil, cold-pressed from the fresh outer parts of the pericarp, has been used as a remedy for coughs. In Romanian traditional medicine, C. limon essential oil was added to sugar and used as a cough suppressant. In Trinidad, the juice or grated skin of lemon has been mixed with molasses to eliminate excess water in the body.¹

EXTRACTION INFORMATION

Country of origin: Italy, USA, Argentina, Sicily, Cyprus
Part of plant used: Peel or zest of fruit
Extraction method: Expression or steam distillation
Essential oil yield: 0.5-2.5% expressed; 0.05-0.1% distilled
Color of oil: Pale yellow

AROMATIC CHEMISTRY

Cold pressed essential oil

Cold pressed lemon essential oil contains over 47+ unique components. Main components include: limonene (47.45-67.02%), -terpinene (8.81-13.7%), β-pinene (10+%), ⍺-pinene (1.89-3.35%), myrcene (1.44-1.92%), sabinene (1.6+%), geranial (1.09-2.17%), neral (0.68-1.42%), b-bisabolene (0.44-1.6%)^2,3

Monoterpenes: limonene (47.45-67.02%), -terpinene (8.81-13.7%), β-pinene (10+%), ⍺-pinene (1.89-3.35%), myrcene (1.44-1.92%), sabinene (1.6+%)
Aldehydes: geranial (1.09-2.17%), neral (0.68-1.42%)

Distilled essential oil

**Distilled lemon has a similar composition as expressed lemon, with slight differences in amounts of each component. Distilled lemon tends to be used in food flavoring rather than in aromatherapy, as the aroma of distilled lemon is considered to be inferior to that of the expressed lemon.⁴

Monoterpenes: limonene (56.3%), -terpinene (6.42%), β-pinene (8.81%), ⍺-pinene (1.34%), myrcene (1.30%), sabinene (1.6+%)
Monoterpenols: linalool (1.78%), ⍺-terpineol (2.25%), 4-terpineol (2.25%), nerol (2.29%)
Aldehydes: geranial (4.96%), neral (3.83%)
Ester: neryl acetate (1.11%)⁵

SAFETY INFORMATION

• Due to the limonene content in lemon essential oil, it is critical that the essential oil be stored properly (e.g., in a dark container in the refrigerator or in a cold room away from sunlight and heat).
• When limonene is oxidized it can become a dermal sensitizer. Oxidized citrus essential oils should not be used in body care products but can be used for cleaning products.
• Average shelf life for monoterpene-rich essential oils, such as grapefruit, when stored correctly is 1-3 years.
• GRAS status.
• Expressed lemon: Low risk for phototoxicity, but it is recommended that topical applications be kept to lower than 2% dilution or that the affected skin not be exposed to sunlight or sunbed rays for at least 12 hours.⁶
• Distilled lemon: Not considered to be phototoxic but can be a dermal sensitizer when oxidized.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS

SYSTEM AFFINITIES

Digestive, Circulatory, Nervous, Skin, Lymph/Immune

BLENDING INFORMATION

Aroma description: Sharp, citrus, refreshing
Blending factor: 6
Note: Top note
Blends well with: Grapefruit, ginger, tea tree, Eucalyptus globulus or E. radiata, lavender, juniper berry, Pinus species (e.g., Scots pine), cypress, cedar, cedarwood, Douglas fir, black spruce, ravintsara, palmarosa, elemi, Boswellia carterii, myrrh, niaouli

CORE INDICATIONS

• General: air purifier, infectious disease (preventative) (D+++, Sp+++)
• Circulatory system: poor circulation, detoxing, venous stasis, heavy legs, hemorrhoids, capillary fragility, varicose veins (can help to prevent and also to prevent them from getting worse) (C+++, O++)
• Digestive system: poor or sluggish digestion¹⁹, toxic overload, hemorrhoids (C+++, O+++)
• Lymph and immune system: lymphatic congestion, preventative for contagious illnesses²⁰ (C+++, O+++)
• Musculoskeletal system: muscular or joint aches and pains, arthritis, cellulite, rheumatism, joint swelling, gout (C+++, I+, O++ *gout)
• Nervous system: Asthenia (general weakness), headache, general fatigue, inability to focus (C+++, O++, I+++)
• Skin: acne, boils, comedones, premature aging skin (preventative), oily complexions, mouth ulcers, cellulite, herpes, rosaceae (couperose), tired, sagging and grayish (smoker’s) skin, capillary fragility, broken capillaries, varicose veins (can help to prevent and also to prevent them from getting worse), ulcers where a large amount of puss or debridement is present (use 1.5 percent dilution in distilled water with lemon and tea tree and apply via a mister to whole area of ulcer at frequent intervals.²¹) (C+++, O++)
• Psyche/emotion: anxiety, depression, stress, anger/irritability, can support communication for those who may have limited communication skills. Lemon can heighten consciousness and is generally activating, stabilizing, and calming during potential emotional outbursts, due to its cooling, clearing, and refreshing effect.²² (I+++, C+++, O+)

RESEARCH

Human Studies

• A combination of lemon, orange, and bergamot essential oils with cis-4-hexanol exhibits antidepressant and immune-enhancing activities.
  Twelve depressive patients experienced some relief from their depression after being treated with the citrus fragrance. Their hormone levels and immune function also improved during treatment.²³

Animal Studies

• Citrus limon essential oil has sedative, anxiolytic and antidepressant activities.²⁴
• Lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil has antioxidant activity. Data in this study implied that Citrus limon essential oil, when used as an antioxidant, can protect the hippocampus from the oxidative damage that often accompanies neurodegenerative diseases.²⁵ Another study also found Citrus limon to exhibit antioxidant activity as well as significant antinociceptive activity.²⁶

• Lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil is antidepressant and anxiolytic.
  In this study, Citrus limon essential oil demonstrated anxiolytic and antidepressant effects through direct interactions with the 5-HTnergic pathway, especially via 5-HT(1A) receptor, and dopamine metabolism within the hippocampus.²⁷

In vitro Studies

• Lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil is a safe and effective penetration enhancer for vitamins held in both water/oil or oil/water emulsions.²⁸
• Lemon (Citrus limon) essential oil exhibits lipolytic (ability to break up fat) activity.²⁹