Foundations of Aromatherapy

INTRODUCTION

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Our Sense of Smell

Introduction: An Underappreciated Sense

Smell, or olfaction, is one of our oldest and most vital senses, yet it often gets overshadowed by sight and hearing. From the moment we’re born, our sense of smell shapes our experiences, guides our behavior, and creates lasting memories. The word “scent” itself comes from the French “sentir“, meaning to feel or smell. In this lesson, we’ll explore the fascinating development, functions, and significance of the human olfactory system.

From Womb to Adulthood: The Development of Smell

Did you know that our sense of smell starts developing before we’re even born? While growing in the womb, our olfactory system begins taking shape, allowing us to experience the first hints of the world. Newborn babies can already respond to various scents and recognize their mother’s unique smell.

As we grow, our sense of smell keeps developing and refining. Infants and children learn to distinguish different odors and form preferences. Our smelling ability peaks in early adulthood before gradually declining with age, but it remains an essential tool throughout life.

The Many Roles of Smell: More Than Meets the Nose

Over the course of human evolution, our keen sense of smell has become finely tuned for many important reasons:

• Keeping Us Safe: Smell acts as a built-in warning system, alerting us to dangers like spoiled food, smoke, or gas leaks.
• Enhancing Flavor: Smell is closely tied to taste. Delicious aromas stimulate our appetite and guide our food choices, ensuring we eat a varied diet.
• Triggering Memories and Emotions: Certain scents can evoke vivid memories and powerful emotions due to the olfactory system’s close link to the brain’s memory and emotion centers.
• Enabling Social Communication: We each have a unique scent that can convey information about our emotions, health, and compatibility with others. Personal fragrances also serve as a form of self-expression.
• Helping with Navigation: Just as animals use scent trails, humans can use olfactory cues, like the smell of a bakery or coffee shop, to orient themselves and create mental maps.

Olfactory Aromatherapy

Have you ever noticed how certain scents can instantly uplift your mood or soothe your nerves? This is the basis of olfactory aromatherapy – using the sense of smell and the aromas of essential oils to enhance well-being in mind, body, and spirit. Numerous studies have shown that aromas can produce a wide range of beneficial effects, particularly for stress-related conditions and emotional or psychological issues.

The use of odoriferous matter induces a true sentimental and mental liberation, and essential oils free us from encumbering emotions while leaving our faculties unimpaired.
Marguerite Maury

The magic of olfactory aromatherapy lies in how aromas impact the brain, specifically the limbic system we explored earlier. When we inhale essential oils, the scent molecules travel directly to the limbic regions involved in emotions, memory, and autonomic functions. This can influence our emotional state, nervous system activity, and even hormone release from the endocrine system.

To summarize the benefits of olfactory aromatherapy. Aromatics can be used to:

• Reduce or alleviate stress and anxiety
• Relieve pain by altering pain perception (in the brain)
• Induce sleep or relaxation
• Increase alertness and overall performance
• Support weight control or loss
• Balance and adjust sleep patterns
• Alleviate nausea
• Affect and improve mood and increase overall emotional well-being
• Ease physical ailments, particularly stress-related disorders
• Help shape our impressions of self and others.

FACTS ABOUT THE SENSE OF SMELL

• The sense of smell is very underestimated. Smell is our first primary defense mechanism. Our reaction to smell is quicker at 0.5 seconds than to pain at 0.9 seconds, although we react more quickly to auditory stimuli at 0.15 seconds (Genders).
• The average healthy person can distinguish between ten and forty thousand odors (ad infinitum), many on a subliminal level.
• Smell relays messages from our outer world directly to the brain, influencing the physical body, mind, and emotions.
• Olfactory nerve cells regenerate every thirty to sixty days, clearly underlining their importance.
• Olfaction is a chemical sense; the receptors respond to chemical stimuli. To arouse sensation, a substance must first be in a gaseous state before going into a mucous solution.

Before moving into the anatomy of our sense of smell, let’s take a quick look at the types of olfactory disorders.

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DISORDERS OF OLFACTION

Our sense of smell is a vital part of our daily lives, helping us enjoy the world around us and warning us of potential dangers. However, when this sense is impaired, it can significantly impact our quality of life. In this lesson, we will explore the different types of olfactory disorders, their causes, and the available treatment options.

Types of Olfactory Disorders
There are two main types of olfactory disorders: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative olfactory disorders affect the strength of a person’s sense of smell. They can be caused by head trauma, viral infections of the upper respiratory tract, or nasal/sinus disease. Quantitative olfactory disorders are the most common type, affecting up to one-fifth of the general population.

Quantitative impairments include:

1. Hyperosmia: An oversensitivity to odors
2. Hyposmia: Reduced sensitivity to odors
3. Anosmia: Complete or nearly complete loss of the sense of smell

In contrast, qualitative olfactory disorders cause a distortion in the perception of odors rather than a reduced ability to smell. These disorders are less common than quantitative disorders, affecting an estimated 4% of the population for parosmia and 0.8% to 2.1% for phantosmia. Qualitative disturbances often occur along with quantitative reductions in the sense of smell.

Qualitative impairments include:

1. Parosmia: An odor is perceived differently than it should be, often unpleasantly, in the presence of an odor source
2. Phantosmia: Perception of an odor that isn’t actually present

Causes of Olfactory Disorders

There are several common causes of olfactory dysfunction, including:

1. Aging: As we get older, our sense of smell naturally declines.
2. Upper respiratory tract infections: Viral infections, such as the common cold or flu, can damage the olfactory receptors in the nose.
3. Traumatic brain injury: Head injuries can damage the olfactory nerves or the brain regions responsible for processing odors.
4. Chronic rhinosinusitis: Inflammation of the nasal passages and sinuses can obstruct airflow and prevent odors from reaching the olfactory receptors.
5. Neurodegenerative disorders: Conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease can affect the brain’s ability to process olfactory information.
6. Exposure to toxins: Certain chemicals, such as pesticides or solvents, can damage the olfactory system.
7. Medications: Some medications, such as antibiotics or antihistamines, can alter the sense of smell as a side effect.

Diagnosing Olfactory Disorders

If you suspect that you have an olfactory disorder, it is essential to consult with an otolaryngologist (ear, nose, and throat doctor). They will perform a thorough examination and may conduct smell tests to assess your olfactory function. These tests typically involve presenting you with various odors and asking you to identify or detect them.

Treatment Options

The treatment for olfactory disorders depends on the underlying cause. In some cases, the sense of smell may return naturally once the cause is addressed, such as when an upper respiratory infection resolves. Other treatment options include:

1. Olfactory training: This involves regularly exposing yourself to a set of specific odors to stimulate the olfactory system and promote recovery.
2. Medications: Steroids or antibiotics may be prescribed to reduce inflammation or treat infections that are causing the olfactory dysfunction.
3. Surgery: In cases where nasal obstructions, such as polyps, are blocking airflow, surgical intervention may be necessary.
4. Counseling: Adapting to life with an olfactory disorder can be challenging, and counseling can help you develop coping strategies and improve your overall quality of life.

Olfactory disorders can have a significant impact on our daily lives, affecting our enjoyment of food, our ability to detect potential hazards, and our social interactions. By understanding the different types of olfactory disorders, their causes, and the available treatment options, we can better manage these conditions and maintain a good quality of life.

Olfactory Fading and Fatigue

• Olfactory fading occurs when our olfactory system adapts to a smell and ceases to register the aroma. An example of olfactory fading would be the smell of our own home that we grow accustomed to and, therefore, cease to register how it actually smells.
• Olfactory fatigue, on the other hand, is what happens when our olfactory system is exposed to numerous odors within a short span of time. During fatigue, we are no longer able to distinguish between one odor and another. This is when it is time to get a good whiff of coffee beans, as they help to clear the nasal palate, so to speak.

Exercise Your Sense of Smell

The sense of smell, like muscles and the brain, needs exercise to become stronger. Often, when someone thinks they don’t have a good sense of smell, it is because they don’t consciously use it. Also, some individuals don’t like the smell of essential oils at first, and often, this is because they have been brought up on synthetic odors and are used to the way synthetics smell. More often than not, however, when that same individual begins to exercise their sense of smell and become more familiar with the natural aromas of essential oils, they begin to experience the vast differences between synthetics and natural aromas.

To exercise the sense of smell, begin by simply observing different aromas/smells within your environment. Then, move on to smelling plants when they are in bloom or natural, authentic essential oils. Take time to truly experience the nuances of an aroma. You could even keep a journal of all the different aromas you observe. Share your experiences with others.

The Power of Smell Training
See Blog Post here: https://aromaticstudies.com/the-power-of-smell-training/

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Learn how to make a simple herbal oil using the folk method

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Herbal Infused Oils and Salves

with Juliet Blankespoor

Many herbs graciously lend their medicine and aroma to oil. Herbal infused oils act to extract and preserve the medicinal qualities of herbs, providing a convenient and pleasurable form of topical application. Certain constituents in healing herbs are readily extracted in oils. Examples are: volatile or essential oils, lipids, and resins. Preparing herbal oils is quite easy, especially if you follow a few basic guidelines. The first thing to remember is that oil can ferment or mold when water is added. Any water added to herbal-infused oil has the potential of ruining the oil, including water lingering on the inside of kitchen implements (pots, jars, and their lids), or water from the juices of fresh herbs themselves. For this reason, I prepare my oils from dried herbs, with a few exceptions. When I first began making herbal infused oils I would use fresh herbs and place the jars in the sun to slowly infuse, and while that worked most of the time, I ended up with a few off-batches. I switched to using partially wilted herbs with the hope of reducing the water content of the herbs, while maintaining the fresh vitality of the herb. In my experience, this method produces high quality oils over 90% of the time, but every now and then you might end up with a ruined batch of oil, which can be a sad moment indeed.

If you are new to preparing herbal medicinal oils, I recommend working with freshly dried herbs, herbs that have recently been harvested and dried. There are many herbalists who wouldn’t dream of making herbal infused oil with dried herbs; may their jars never mold and their salves be forever sweet! Seriously, there are many ways to prepare beautiful infused oils. I recommend trying the following methods initially and then you can branch out using your intuition, experience, and common sense.

I typically use extra-virgin olive oil (Olea europaea, Oleaceae) as it has a long shelf life and readily dissolves into the skin. If you will be using your oil for massage or broad application consider using sesame (Sesamum indicum, Pedaliaceae), coconut (Cocus nucifera, Arecaceae), jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis, Simmondsiaceae), or sweet almond oil (Prunus amygdalus, Rosaceae). After preparing your herbal infused oil, you may choose to use it as a stand-alone oil, or transform it into an herbal salve, body butter or cream.

Preparing an Herbal Infused Oil

There are many effective methods for preparing herbal oils. I will share my two preferred methods here. It is fine to combine multiple herbs in a single jar or pot for a specific formula rather than making separate individual oils. You can use either method alone, or you may choose to employ the maceration method, followed by the heat method. For resinous herbs, I recommend using heat to gently melt and extract the resin. Examples of resinous herbs include: calendula (Calendula officinalis, Asteraceae), chaparral (Larrea tridentata, Zygophyllaceae), poplar buds (balm of Gilead) (Populus spp., Salicaceae), and resins from conifers or sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua, Altingiaceae). If you need a medicinal oil right away consider the heat method as it only takes one day to complete the process.

• Maceration Method

  Gather your herb(s) and dry thoroughly. If you are purchasing dried herbs, make sure they are fresh and of high quality. Combine the dried herb with extra-virgin olive oil in the blender, food processor, or vita-mixer so the herb is completely covered with oil and blended to a coarse texture. Aim for a coarse pesto-like texture. Blending your herbs to a fine texture will create a more concentrated oil by increasing the surface area of herb exposed to the oil. If you are buying herbs and they are already ground to a fine texture you can skip blending. Note that there are no exact measurements or proportions: this is not necessary with the topical nature of oil preparations. The oil will be more medicinal, or concentrated, if you use a higher proportion of herb to oil.

  Place the herb and oil slurry in a clean, dry, glass jar, taking care that the herb is completely submerged in the oil by one to two inches. You may need to top the herbal slurry with additional oil. Place the jar in a dark cabinet for four weeks.

  Exception: If you are making Saint John’s wort oil (Hypericum perforatum and H. punctatum, Hypericaceae) use freshly wilted flowers (flowers picked yesterday), do not blend, and place in a sunny window for four weeks. Strain your slurry (see instructions below) or finish your oil with the Heat Method, especially with resinous herbs.

• Heat Method

  Blend your freshly dried or purchased herb as outlined above. Place the mixture in a double boiler. You can improvise a double boiler by nesting two pots together; or placing Mason jar bands upside down in a saucepan filled with water and setting the second saucepan on top of the Mason jar bands. The trick is to nest one pan so it is raised off the bottom of the first pan. Heat slowly and keep on low heat for four to eight hours. Do not let the oil get hotter than 110 degrees F (a little hotter than bath water). Watch closely to make sure the water does not completely evaporate and/or the oil does not get too hot. You do not want deep fried herbs!

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Straining Your Oils

After you have prepared the infused herbal oil the next step is to strain it through a muslin cloth, or a very tight weave of cheesecloth, into a glass jar. If the oil is slightly warm, it will be easier to strain. Place the cloth into a stainless-steel strainer and pour the oil/herb slurry over the cloth. After the oil ceases to run through the cloth squeeze the cloth with clean, dry hands to wring out any remaining oil from the herb. Add the lid when the oil cools to room temperature, and then label the jar. You are now ready to use the herbal infused oil to make a salve. Store any unused oil in the refrigerator to prolong its shelf life. Herbal infused oils will typically last two to three years when refrigerated.

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Transforming Your Herbal Infused Oils into a Salve

Measure your oil into a double boiler and then bring it slowly up to 110 degrees F in the double boiler (see the notes above on making an improvised double boiler). For every four fluid ounces of oil, add one ounce grated or beaded beeswax by volume. For example, if you measure out eight fluid ounces of oil divide by four to determine the volume of beeswax needed. In this example, add two ounces of finely grated beeswax or beeswax beads. After years of tediously hand shaving beeswax, I am happy to buy the beeswax beads to eight ounces of herbal infused oil. Completely dissolve the beeswax into the oil and stir to mix the beeswax and oil together. To test the consistency of your salve, place a spoonful of the mixture into the freezer for two minutes, pull it out and test its hardness. Depending on the size of your beeswax shavings or beads, this recipe will make a softer salve. It’s easy enough to adjust the texture by adding more beeswax or more oil depending on the desired consistency.

Keep in mind that harder salves will be less likely to melt in a hot car or bag, but will be more difficult to apply. While your salve is still warm, and just before you pour, you can add any desired essential oil or oils. Alternately, you can create different batches by adding the essential oil directly into the salve jar after its poured. Just be prepared to add your essential oils quickly as the salve will begin to harden soon after you pour. I use a clean, dry chopstick to stir the essential oils thoroughly when I am using this method. Salves will typically last one to three years unrefrigerated. Refrigeration is not necessary but will prolong the shelf life. Vitamin E is often added to the salve mixture, right before it is poured into jars, as an anti-oxidant to prevent rancidity. For every ten ounces of oil, add two capsules of Vitamin E oil, or ½ teaspoon of liquid Vitamin E oil.

Note: Carnauba wax, extracted from the leaves of the Brazilian palm tree (Copernicia prunifera, Areaceae), may be substituted for beeswax for those wishing to avoid animal products. Carnauba wax is harder than beeswax, and has a higher melting point; it must be heated to a higher temperature than beeswax to melt. You may need to adjust your proportions as well.

I recommend using a rag or paper towel and cleaning the salve pot while the residual oil is still warm. Multiple cleanings with very hot water and soap will effectively do the job.

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Appropriate Use of Oils and Salves

Covering a large expanse of the body in salve is often not desirable. Herbs used for widespread joint inflammation or injury are typically applied as an herbal infused oil via massage. Essential oils can be diluted directly into the herbal infused oil as needed. Examples of herbal oils that are often massaged into the skin are; Saint John’s wort, arnica (Arnica spp., Asteraceae), and poplar buds.

The beeswax in salve helps to prolong its application on the skin, in addition to holding in moisture. This quality is especially helpful when tissues are very dry or irritated. Oils tend to rub off quicker than salve and require more frequent application. Salves are also solid and are more convenient to transport than oil, which has the potential to spill or leak.

There are situations when the application of herbal oils and salves is not recommended. Oils and salves help to hold in moisture and heat and are contra-indicated in weepy skin conditions, infections and fresh burns. Avoid the use of oils and salves on poison ivy rashes, weepy eczema, pimples, boils, fresh sunburn, and fungal and bacterial skin infections. Instead, use herbal compresses, soaks, baths, or poultices, which are examples of water-based applications. Also, note that if oils are used as a sexual lubricant, they can degrade and break most condoms.

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Traditional Topical Herbs and Their Uses

• Arnica (Arnica spp., Asteraceae) flowers and leaves are used to alleviate arthritic conditions and heal injuries, such as sprains, muscle strains, bruising, and bone breaks. Most arnica preparations sold in the store are homeopathic, but arnica prepared as an herbal infused oil is a very different medicine.  Arnica oil, herbal not homeopathic, should not be used on broken skin; cuts, abrasions, or bruises with scrapes, as it can be very irritating. Herbal arnica works as a rubefacient, which means it brings more blood flow to an injured or inflamed area.

• Calendula (Calendula officinalis, Asteraceae) flowers are used topically as a vulnerary, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory. Take care that you are using the whole dried flowers, as the medicinal resinous oils are found mostly in the involucres (the green base of the flower head). Sometimes calendula is sold as “petals,” only this is a weaker medicine for topical use. Calendula is used to speed the healing of rashes, burns, wounds, eczema, insect bites, chaffing and bruises. It is a common remedy for diaper rash and to heal sore cracked nipples from nursing, as it is safe for babies to ingest in small amounts.

• Chickweed (Stellaria media, Caryophyllaceae) leaves, stems and flowers are a cooling, soothing, anti-inflammatory and anti-itching herb. It is used to heal rashes, burns, eczema, insect bites and dry skin and lips.

• Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, Boraginaceae) root is one of the best herbs for promoting healing of damaged tissue. It can be used on bruises, breaks, cuts, sores, and sprains. The leaf is also medicinal but the root is much higher in allantoin (primary constituent that promotes tissue growth) and mucilage. Comfrey has many contra-indications when used internally; however, these contra-indications do not apply to topical use.

• Plantain (Plantago spp., Plantaginaceae) leaves are anti-inflammatory, demulcent, astringent, and vulnerary. Plantain is a common weed in lawns, fields and gardens. It should not be confused with the banana-like plantain fruit (Musa spp., Musaceae) of the tropics. Plantain is used topically on insect stings, spider bites, cuts, bruises, rashes, and burns. The leaves can typically be found throughout the year and used as a fresh poultice when needed.

• Poplar buds (Populus spp., Salicaceae) are the resinous early spring buds from various poplar tree species. Poplar buds are wonderfully sticky and aromatic, and a traditional remedy for burns and arthritic conditions. Balm of Gilead or balsam poplar (Populus x gileadensis, Salicaceae) is a traditional folk remedy of the Appalachian Mountains. The medicinal uses of the tree were so important that mountain folks simply called it the balm tree.

• Saint John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum and H. punctatum, Hypericaceae) flower clusters, which are comprised of flower buds and open flowers, are employed topically to heal burns and alleviate muscular inflammation.  It is used for sciatica, arthritis, pulled or strained muscles, sunburn and other burns after the initial heat has dissipated.

• Violet (Viola spp., Violaceae) leaves are cooling, anti-inflammatory and soothing. The leaves are emollient (mucilaginous) and sooth dry irritated skin conditions such as psoriasis, insect bites, chaffing, and abrasions.

• Yarrow (Achillea millefolium, Asteraceae) flowers and leaves are anti-microbial, astringent, anti-hemorrhagic and anti-inflammatory. Yarrow is used to help stop bleeding (a fresh herb or poultice is the most effective) and tighten inflamed and boggy tissues. Yarrow helps with bruising, spider veins, hemorrhoids, and varicose veins.

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Biography:

Juliet Blankespoor is the director and primary instructor at the Chestnut School of Herbal Medicine where she teaches botany, plant identification, human anatomy and physiology, wild foods, and bioregional community herbalism. In addition, she cultivates a diverse herb garden and apothecary. Juliet also shares her plant obsession through her herbal articles and botanical photography in her blog Castanea at: http://blog.chestnutherbs.com/. To learn more about Juliet, and find links for supplies to make your own herbal infused oils, please visit: http://blog.chestnutherbs.com/links.

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COMMON SKIN CONDITIONS

➙ Acne

Acne is caused by overactive or malformed sebaceous (oil) glands that become plugged with a mixture of oil and shedding skin cells, which prevents the oil from flowing out. Acne is often accompanied by inflammation and bacterial infections (by Corynebacterium acnes, Staphylococcus epidermidis). There are often contributing factors such as allergies, diet, certain medications, heredity, stress, cosmetics, illness, intestinal problems, or hormones.

Acne conditions include Pimples, pustules, cysts, blackheads, and abscesses.

**Individuals with acne may also suffer from emotional stress, lack of self-confidence, depression, anxiety, and other emotional states, which are either in reaction to or a potential contributing factor to the manifestation of acne. Addressing the individual’s emotions is equally important as it is the skin condition itself.

 Essential oils:

Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Frankincense (Boswellia carteri), Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Lemon (Citrus limon), Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) and Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia)

 Treatment approaches:

• Warm facial compresses, then mask.
• Face mask to tone and deep cleanse.
• Cleansing program twice to three times daily.
• Moisturize with a nourishing face cream.

Example aromatic program

Acne cleanser

• 2 ounces baby castille soap (Dr. Bronners)
• 1/2 ounce aloe vera gel
• 1 tbsp. lavender hydrosol
• 5 drops Tea tree essential oil
• 3 drops Roman chamomile essential oil
• 4 drops Lavender essential oil

Combine all ingredients and stir together. Place in a squeeze top PET plastic bottle or glass jar and use 2x a day, once in the morning and once before bed time.

Acne Toner

• 1 ounce Rose hydrosol
• 1 ounce Lavender hydrosol
• 2 tbsp. aloe vera gel

Combine ingredients in flip top container. Apply small amount to organic cotton pad and gently wipe face after using cleanser. Follow up with a cream or facial oil.

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➙ Psoriasis

Psoriasis is noted when the skin has well-demarcated raised red patches or thickening of the skin caused by rapid cell division (up to 1000 times faster than normal skin cell division). The skin has the appearance of being scaly and dry, and it may itch and bleed. Psoriasis is thought to be caused by chemical or mechanical irritations, change of climate, genetic disposition or stress-related reactions. Psoriasis most often occurs around the elbows, knees, scalp, and back, although it can occur anywhere on the body. Stress tends to aggravate conditions of psoriasis.

Psoriasis is a particularly difficult condition to treat, and, not surprisingly, the more severe the symptoms, the more difficult it is to provide effective treatment.

However, she goes on to say that aromatherapists should not be deterred from attempting to address the distressing symptoms of psoriasis. Aromatherapy is used to provide relief of symptoms, reduce stress, and provide a supportive role to other natural therapies such as naturopathy or homeopathy.

Therapeutic goals:

• Reduce itching and/or inflammation
• Aid in healing the skin, avoiding scar formation
• Reduce stress

Essential oils: Roman chamomile, Cypress, Frankincense, Lavender, Patchouli, Vetiver, Ylang ylang

Base material: Shea butter, Calendula, Aloe vera gel with hydrosols of Lavender and German chamomile

Example Aromatic Program:

Psoriasis Soother

• 2 ounces concentrated aloe vera gelly or unscented cream base
• 1 tbsp. Lavender hydrosol
• 1 tbsp. Rose hydrosol
• 4 drops Roman chamomile essential oil
• 3 drops Ylang ylang essential oil
• 1-2 drops Patchouli essential oil

Stir all ingredients together. Store in glass container. Use at least 3 times a day or as needed.

Dry Psoriasis Salve

To make 2 ounces:

• 1/4 oz beeswax
• 1/8 cup Calendula herbal oil
• 1/8 cup Rose hip seed oil

Gently melt beeswax in double boiler. Just before all the beeswax is melted add in calendula herbal oil and rosehip seed oil. Remove from heat as soon as all beeswax is melted. Add in the following essential oils:

• 14 drops Lavender
• 7 drops Roman chamomile
• 10 drops Frankincense

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➙ Canker sores

“Canker sores, also known as aphthous ulcers, are small sores that occur inside the mouth. You can get them on the tongue and on the inside of the cheeks and lips — the parts of the mouth that can move. They usually pop up alone, but sometimes they show up in small clusters.

Your mouth might tingle or burn before the actual sore appears. Soon, a small red bump rises. Then after a day or so it bursts, leaving an open, shallow white or yellowish wound with a red border. The sores are often painful and can be up to an inch across, although most of them are much smaller. Occasionally, someone who gets canker sores may also develop a fever and feel sluggish and uncomfortable.

The good news is that canker sores are not contagious like some other mouth sores, such as cold sores. You can’t spread canker sores by sharing food or kissing someone. Cold sores, however, are caused by the herpes simplex virus, which can pass from person to person. If you have a sore and you’re wondering if it’s of the cold or canker variety, just look at where it’s located. Cold sores usually appear outside the mouth, around the lips, chin, or nostrils. Canker sores, on the other hand, are always found inside the mouth”.

Essential oils: Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile)

Treatment approaches:

• Wash hands thoroughly, then place two drops of Geranium on index finger and apply to sore.
• Create an antiseptic wash with 1/2 witch hazel hydrosol, 1/2 distilled water and 10% dilution of chosen essential oils.

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➙ Warts

Warts are a benign skin growth typically caused by a virus. Warts do not have ‘roots’ and do not grow down into other tissue. They tend to disappear on their own spontaneously. In Chinese medicine warts can be seen as blockages in energy flow. Warts tend to be found more often in our younger years and are most commonly found on the face, hands, elbows, and knees. Some forms of warts can be contagious. Folklore would suggest that the mind could affect the disappearance of warts.

Essential oils: Eucalyptus globulus, Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), Lemon (Citrus limon), Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens)

Treatment approaches:

• A single drop of any of these oils can be applied neat (undiluted) on the wart, avoiding the surrounding tissue, and then covered with a Band-Aid. This should be repeated daily until the wart disappears or falls off. If skin irritation should occur then discontinue the applications.

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➙ Scars

Scars are marks left on the skin after healing from an injury or trauma or from surgery. When the skin has been wounded, fibroblast cells repair the tissue. Sometimes fewer collagen and elastic cells are present during the healing process and the result is skin that is firmer and less elastic. Old scars are difficult to change but can be improved with a diligent program. Using essential oils while the skin is healing can minimize or prevent scarring. The application of essential oils on old scar tissue can also lead to a healthier and loving relationship to the scar and its possible painful memory.

Essential oils: Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), Frankincense (Boswellia carteri), Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Patchouli (Pogostemum cablin), Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata)

Treatment Approaches:

• Create therapeutic oil by combining 50% jojoba oil with 50% calendula herbal infusion. To this oil add 10% of the following oils: Frankincense (Boswellia carteri), Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile)
• Spray area with Rose hydrosol then apply above oil. Apply 2-3 times a day.

Example Aromatic Program:

Soothing skin salve

(Makes 2 ounces)

Create a therapeutic skin salve utilizing:

• 1/4 ounce beeswax
• 1/8 cup jojoba oil
• 1/8 cup calendula herbal infusion

Per 50ml/2oz jar add:

• 14 drops Frankincense
• 6 drops Roman chamomile essential oil
• 14 drops Lavender essential oil

Follow directions for making salve in Module 7: Methods of Application.

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➙ Sunburn

Sunburn is caused by over exposure to the ultraviolet rays of the sun. The effects can range from slight reddening and tenderness to painful blisters, swelling, and inflammation.

Treatment Approaches:

• Calendula is often the first oil to be thought of where sun-care is concerned. A common combination is to blend Jojoba and Calendula with a 2.5% dilution of roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and frankincense (Boswellia carteri).
• Take a cool shower, then afterwards while still WET, massage the above oil into the skin.
• Throughout the day, utilize a cooling facial/body spritzer with 1/2 lavender hydrosol, 1/2 orange flower water.

Essential oils: Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), Frankincense (Boswellia carteri)

Example Aromatic program: Sunburn gel

• 2 ounces aloe vera gelly
• 1 tbsp. German chamomile hydrosol
• 1 tbsp. Lavender hydrosol
• 5 drops Lavender essential oil
• 3 drops Roman chamomile essential oil

Combine all ingredients and store in glass jar. Apply to skin as needed.

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Aromatic Waters: Hydrosols

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Watch: About Hydrosols with Jade Shutes & Ildiko Berecz

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The word “hydrosol” is derived from the Greek hydro, meaning water, and the Latin sol, meaning solution. When plant matter is distilled, an essential oil and a hydrosol are produced.

Hydrosols, also known as hydrolats, are the aqueous product of distillation. They carry the hydrophilic (water-soluble) components of the plant in solution, as well as microscopic droplets of essential oils in suspension.

Every liter of hydrosol contains between 0.05 and 0.2 milliliters (less than 1%, typically 0.01 – 0.04%) of dissolved essential oil, depending on the water solubility of the plant’s components and the distillation parameters. Hydrosols also contain carboxylic acids, which may explain their observed anti-inflammatory activity.

Hydrosols are sometimes called flower or floral waters. This term is imprecise: Not all hydrosols are made from flowers, and most hydrosols do not have a floral aroma. Hydrosols, like essential oils, can be made from leaves, whole plants, seeds, roots, flowers, and resins. Unlike essential oils, hydrosols can also be produced from non-aromatic plants such as nettles or plantain.

When water and essential oils are mixed for the purpose of spraying into the air, with or without a dispersing agent, this would be called an aromatic spritzer, and its therapeutic benefits and safety concerns will be slightly different from that of a true hydrosol.

Hydrosols may be used in/for:

• Hydrotherapy (baths)
• Aromatic sprays
• Compresses
• Clays
• Internal applications
• Gels, lotions and creams
• Toners and cleansers

Hydrosols, like essential oils, can be combined together for a variety of different therapeutic purposes.

Hydrosols as hydrating agents:

Modern skin suffers tremendously at the hands of environmental conditions, excessive coffee use, low water intake, and nutritional deficiencies. When the skin is in need of hydration, besides consuming water internally, the application of hydrosols is incredibly beneficial. Neither essential oils nor vegetable carrier oils contain water and hence are not hydrating to the skin. Hydrosols and all-natural skin care creams are able to deliver the necessary moisture to the skin (along, of course, with dietary measures and increased water consumption).

Integrating hydrosols into Practice:

Hydrosols add a dynamic aspect to blending and applications for aromatherapy. They can be used as single hydrosols or blended together. They can be added to creams, lotions, gels, cleansing bases, and other products that accept a water component. Hydrosols are often used as toners and as additions to bath water.

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Dilution Rates:

• For concentrated creams, lotions, gels, and cleansing bases: add hydrosols 1tsp or tbsp. at a time until the desired consistency is achieved.
• For handmade creams/lotions: use hydrosol/s in place of water.
• For baths: For babies up to six months add 1 teaspoon of chosen hydrosol to an infant bathtub or 2 teaspoons for an adult tub filled to baby depth. For children up to twelve years of age, add 1 teaspoon of hydrosol per year of age, up to a maximum of 8 teaspoons. Adults can use from 30 to 250 milliliters (or 1 to 8 ounces per tub).1 Add 2-3 tbsp for foot bath.
• For compresses: For adults add 3 to 5 tablespoons of hydrosols to l liter of water at the desired temperature; for children add 2 to 3 teaspoons of hydrosols per 1 liter of water.
• To use as toner: combine one or more hydrosols together. You can add in a small amount (1-2tbsp. per 2 ounces) aloe vera gel, aloe vera gelly, and/or honey as well.
• For gels, clays, and cleansers: use amount based upon desired consistency.
• Internal use: add 1-2 tbsp in a glass of water. (e.g. Neroli/Orange flower hydrosol can be quite beneficial for reducing coffee jitters, and 1-2 tsp of German chamomile hydrosol for a child over 3 years old can be quite beneficial in helping the child to sleep.)

Hydrosols and Their Therapeutic Benefits

Hydrosol	Therapeutic Benefits
German chamomile Matricaria recutita Stable: can last up to two years pH: 4.1	● #1 hydrosol for infants and young children: diaper rash, calm and soothe, and help with sleeping ● Anti-inflammatory and cooling properties make it useful for various skin conditions, such as eczema, psoriasis, rashes, acne, sunburns, and other inflammatory conditions ● Calming and balancing to the autonomic nervous system; soothes or reduces feelings and symptoms of stress ● German chamomile, like lavender, can be added to the bath for its sedative and soothing properties
Roman chamomile Chamaemelum nobile Stable: can last up to two years pH: 3. - 3.3	● Calming and soothing effects on the mind: insomnia, stress relief, mildly euphoric ● Anti-inflammatory and antiseptic for the skin: rashes, acne ● Beneficial for reducing anxiety, anger, and childhood hyperactivity
Helichrysum Helichrysum italicum Stable: can last up to two years pH: 3.5 - 3.8	● Anti-inflammatory and cooling properties make it useful for various skin conditions, such as eczema, psoriasis, rashes, acne, sunburns, and other inflammatory conditions ● Useful for dry, mature skin.
Lavender Lavandula angustifolia Stable: can last up to two years pH: 4.6 - 5.9	● Relaxing, soothing, and comforting: headaches, stress-related conditions ● Anti-inflammatory and antiseptic ● For infants in the bath or as a spritzer for diaper rash, sleep problems ● Muscular aches and pains, sprains, strains, sore or stiff muscles
Neroli / Orange flower Citrus aurantium var. amara Stable: can last up to two years pH: 3.8 - 4.5	● Antidepressant, euphoric ● Stress relieving, insomnia, mild sedative ● Toner for acne and oily skin due to mild astringent effect
Rose Rosa damascena Stable: can last up to two years pH: 4.1 - 4.4	● Astringent, useful for acne, varicose veins, oily skin, normal-to-dry, mature, sensitive, and devitalized skin ● Calming, soothing, nurturing ● Strong affinity with the heart, useful for individuals who are grieving or are in need of emotional support, heartache ● Female tonic: cramps, PMS symptoms, emotional upsets, hot flashes, menopause symptoms and related skin conditions
Witch hazel Hammamelis virginiana Moderate shelf life: 8-12 months pH: 4.0 - 4.2	● Astringent, useful for acne, varicose veins, oily skin, normal-to-dry, mature, sensitive, and devitalized skin ● Strongest antioxidant hydrosol (Catty, 2001) ● Cracked or blistered skin, eczema, psoriasis ● Hemorrhoids ● Reduces itching, rashes, inflammation, and swelling of the skin

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Recipe Ideas:

Cleanser for Oily Skin

Just under 2 ounces Castile soap – leave enough space to add the following:

• 1 tbsp Witch hazel hydrosol
• 1 tbsp Glycerin
• 10 drops Cypress e/o
• 10 drops Lavender e/o

Gel for Burns

Just under 2 ounces concentrated gelly – leave enough space to add the following:

• 2 tsp Lavender hydrosol
• 2 tsp German chamomile hydrosol
• 2 tsp Calendula herbal oil
• 14 drops Lavender e/o
• 10 drops Helichrysum e/o
• 7 drops Roman chamomile e/o

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HERBAL OILS

Herbal oils are infusions of medicinal herbs, most commonly in an olive oil or sunflower oil base. Typically, fresh (which has been dried to some extent to remove all moisture) or dried plant material is placed in a jar and then covered with the chosen vegetable oil. This mixture is then placed in the sun for two to four weeks or longer and then strained. These herbal infusions are then applied to the skin for a variety of therapeutic benefits, depending on the medicinal plant used. To learn more about infusing herbal oils, see the Sprout module in this module. We have a wonderful article by herbalist, Juliet Blankespoor.

The three most common herbal infusions utilized by aromatherapists include:

Calendula, St. John’s Wort and Arnica. In our Foundations program we will focus our studies on Calendula.

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➜ Calendula (Calendula officinalis)

Calendula is an annual herbaceous plant, 1 to 2 feet high, with medium-green leaves and a much branching fragrant stem. The daisy-like flowers can be a delightful variety of light orange, yellow, and even golden to dark yellow flowers. It will flower all summer long and well into autumn. It is one of the easiest plants to grow and one that provides great joy.

Therapeutic benefits:

Calendula has been shown to be an effective antimicrobial (both antiviral and antibacterial), anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and wound healing herbal oil. Clinical trials have shown that calendula increases cell proliferation and encourages the granulation process of wound healing.

Calendula is indicated for:

• Wound healing/Tissue repair
• Inflamed skin conditions
• Poorly healing wounds
• Cracked skin conditions
• Burns
• Insect bites
• Cracked nipples due to breastfeeding (nontoxic to baby)
• Damaged tissue, ulcers

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OTHER RAW MATERIAL

➜ Coconut oil

For hundreds of years, Philippine and Hawaiian women have been utilizing coconut oil to protect the skin and soften the hair. Coconut oil can be used to:

• Soften rough, dry skin
• Reduce chronic skin inflammation
• Soothe skin rashes
• Limit the damage to the skin from excessive sun exposure

We are including coconut oil here as it is used in handmade cream making and can also be used in butters and salves. Coconut is a solid oil that can occlude the skin when used alone; however, the use of coconut with other vegetable oils or in creams reduces the occluding action of coconut by itself.

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➜ Cocoa butter

Cocoa butter is the ivory-colored natural fat of the cocoa bean extracted during the manufacturing process of producing chocolate and cocoa powder. Cocoa butter is solid at room temperature, but it has a low melting point (just below body temperature), and it does change from a solid to a liquid quickly. Besides smelling like chocolate, cocoa butter is a wonderful emollient butter for the skin. It is utilized in homemade creams and/or lotions.

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➜ Beeswax and honey

Beeswax comes from the honeycomb of the honey bee. Beeswax will have a dark to light yellow color and will have a unique sweet honey-like aroma. It is used as an emulsifier and thickening agent in the creation of homemade creams, lotions, and salves. The best beeswax is local unprocessed beeswax, rich in color and vibrant with aroma.

Honey is used in spa and bodywork treatments for its ability as a natural humectant. Honey helps attract and retain moisture in the skin, making the skin soft and supple. Honey is being used for back and body care treatments, foot spa treatments, and for the face and neck. Research studies show that honey has a natural ability to protect the skin from free radicals, and it may be employed as an antioxidant agent in skin care products. Honey can be gently melted down and added into hydrosols and then added into creams or cleansers.

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➜ Castile Soap

Organic Castile Liquid Soap Base is an all-natural, vegetable-based cleansing product. Castile soap is used in a variety of ways including to make skin cleanser for face and/or body, green cleaning products, or shampoo, bathroom scrub cleaner, or laundry detergent. We will be using castile soap in the Aromatherapy and the Skin module to make a cleanser.

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CARRIER OILS IN PRACTICE

Carrier oils are a vital, intrinsic part of the repertoire of aromatherapists and botanical body care product manufacturers. The term “carrier” oil indicates the oils’ usefulness as vehicles for therapeutic plant extracts, but they are also unique, therapeutic substances with astounding benefits for holistic skin care.

Carrier oils are primarily comprised of two major categories, the fixed – or vegetable – oils, and herbal oils, which is where herbs are infused into a fixed oil. Essential oils can then be added to any of these carrier oils, thereby increasing the therapeutic value of the overall blend. This combination of essential oils and carrier oils, either fixed oils or herbal oils, offers an ideal therapeutic partnership.

Carrier oils can be obtained from fruits (e.g., olive, sea buckthorn), seeds (e.g., raspberry seed, pomegranate seed), or nuts (e.g., walnut, hazelnut, shea nut butter). The main components of carrier oils are triglycerides (92-98%) and complex mixtures of minor compounds (2-5%) including sterols, wax esters, squalene, tocopherols, pigments, phospholipids, and phenolic components. The types and proportions of these components contribute to the viscosity of the oils, so the carrier “oils” also include the semi-solid butters (e.g., shea nut butter) and waxes (e.g., beeswax).

For aromatherapy, we use carrier oils in:

1. Oil based products for the body or face
2. Oil based products for the hair
3. Handmade creams or lotions
4. Concentrated gels (e.g. aloe vera gelly)
5. Salve preparations
6. Lip balms
7. Body butters and ointments (not covered in this course)
8. To make herbal oils

What are the therapeutic benefits of carrier oils?

The therapeutic activities of carrier oils in this palette are to:

• support and maintain the skin’s intercellular lipid matrix, which in turn serves to protect the integrity of the stratum corneum and its barrier function
• prevent transepidermal water loss (TEWL) by forming an occlusive film on the surface of the skin
• restore barrier function, if damaged
• provide antioxidant activity (preventative to aging)
• provide anti-inflammatory activity

Carrier Oil Production: Methods of Extraction

There are several methods for extracting vegetable oils, from mechanical extraction to microwave-assisted extraction. In this book, we cover the most common methods, which include:

• Cold Pressing or Expeller Pressing: The oil is pressed using a mechanical screw press at temperatures between 45-49 degrees F. The extraction process may include enzymes to increase yield. Still, the oil yield from cold pressing tends to be lower than the yield from solvent extraction. The CODEX Alimentarius Standards define “cold pressed oils” as “obtained, without altering the oil, by mechanical procedures only, e.g., expelling or pressing, without the application of heat. They may have been purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and centrifuging only.”

The CODEX further defines “virgin” as “obtained, without altering the nature of the oil, by mechanical procedures, e.g., expelling or pressing, and the application of heat only. They may have been purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and centrifuging only.”

• Solvent Extraction: This method of oil extraction, which uses a solvent, such as benzene, to extract lipids from nuts and seeds, is a more efficient form of extraction, producing greater oil yields.

• Supercritical Fluid CO2 Extraction: CO2 extraction uses supercritical carbon dioxide, which has the properties of both a gas and a liquid, to extract specific compounds from a plant. Various industries have used this technique for many years (for instance, for decaffeinating coffee,) but it is relatively recently that aromatherapists have used CO2 extracts as therapeutic agents. CO2 extracts from seeds include lipids and can function as carrier oils.

The supercritical CO2 extraction process can be very precise, allowing the producer to select specific molecules to be included in the final product, potentially increasing the oil’s therapeutic value. The carbon dioxide evaporates at the end of the process, leaving no residues behind in the final product. The carbon dioxide can also be fully recycled, making this extraction method relatively environmentally friendly.

How Refining Affects Quality

Refining puts the extracted fixed oil through additional processes to “purify” it. These processes remove undesirable pigments, odor, taste, and fatty acid oxidation products, such as peroxides and their degradation products. The refining process removes many of the nutritive-rich components to lengthen shelf life.

Food producers use the refining process to make oils suitable for consumption and increase their shelf lives. Unfortunately, these processes cause the loss of valuable nutrients, essential fatty acids, and natural antioxidants, producing oils with little to no therapeutic value. Many supermarket oils fall into this category.

Some companies selling carrier oils for aromatherapy and cosmetics will list the oils with RBD or RBDW after the name of the carrier oil, for example, Apricot Kernel – RBD or Black Currant Seed – RBDW. RBD stands for “Refined, Bleached, and Deodorized.” RBDW stands for “Refined, Bleached, Deodorized, and Winterized.” What do the terms refined, bleached, deodorized, and winterized mean?

• Bleaching: The purpose of bleaching is to remove the color pigments from the oil. Bleaching also removes components of the oil that contribute to the oil’s oxidation rate. The bleaching process combines the oil with a bleaching clay (a natural clay or activated with an acid wash) and heats it to high temperatures. The clay absorbs and removes undesirable components, such as the unwanted color pigments. Once the bleaching process is complete, the oil is filtered to remove the clay and other particulate matter, and the resultant oil is nearly colorless.
• Deodorizing: Deodorizing an oil removes the flavor and aroma of the oil by passing steam through it to remove the undesirable components, leaving an oil with no taste or smell.
• Winterizing: Winterization removes compounds, such as waxes, that crystallize at low temperatures and can cause an oil to become cloudy. The process occurs in three steps: heating the oil, appropriate cooling to crystallize undesirable components, and finally, filtering to remove these crystallized components. Winterization typically happens before the deodorizing.

Major Components of Carrier Oils: The Fatty Acids

There are three categories of fatty acids found in carrier oils:

1. Saturated fatty acids – Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms attached to every carbon atom, and the molecule is therefore said to be “saturated” with hydrogen atoms. Saturated fatty acid oils are solid at room temperature. Examples of oils rich in saturated fatty acids include coconut oil and palm kernel oil.
2. Monounsaturated fatty acids – Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) are fatty acids that contain two neighboring hydrogen atoms somewhere in the chain, resulting in one double bond between two carbon atoms. One of the most common monounsaturated fatty acids is oleic acid which is relatively abundant in olive, canola, sunflower (high oleic acid version), and safflower oils.
3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids – Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are fatty acids with two or more carbon double bonds. Two of the most important polyunsaturated fatty acids are alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. These two fatty acids are considered to be Essential fatty acids (EFAs), as they are absolutely essential for human health, but the human body cannot synthesize them; we must either consume them in our diets or apply them to our skin.Polyunsaturated fatty acids are very unstable and can easily oxidize if exposed to oxygen and light. The presence of tocopherols in oils rich in PUFAs may contribute to their lipid stability.

Please note: In this section, we cover the most common fatty acids found in carrier oils. We cover a lot more in our new book, The Carrier Oil Palette.

Saturated Fatty Acids

• Lauric acid (12:0)
• Myristic acid (14:0)
• Palmitic acid (16:0)
• Stearic acid (18:0)

→ Lauric acid
Lauric acid is a major component of coconut and palm kernel oils. An in vivo study showed the antimicrobial properties of lauric acid against Cutibacterium acnes (syn. Propionibacterium acnes,) indicating its potential use in cases of acne vulgaris.

→ Myristic acid
Myristic acid is a minor component of coconut and palm kernel oils.

→ Palmitic acid
Palmitic acid is the most common saturated fatty acid in the human body, accounting for 20–30% of the total fatty acids. One of its key roles is to create a protective coating on the surface of the skin. It is also found in palm oil (44%), sea buckthorn oil (34-35%), cocoa butter (26%), olive oil (8-20%), macadamia nut oil, and meat and dairy products (50-60%). (Percentages are based on total fat content.)

→ Stearic Acid
Stearic acid, one of the most commonly occurring fatty acids, is a saturated fatty acid found in both animal and vegetable fats and oils, including beef fat and cocoa butter. It is found in abundance in tallow (38%), cocoa butter (33-40%), and shea nut butter (25-50%). It is a minor component in coconut and palm kernel oils.

Stearic acid is used in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products as a delivery system and for masking the bitter taste of pharmaceutical compounds. Isolated stearic acid is used in creams as a thickening and emollient agent.

Note: If you are purchasing isolated stearic acid, make sure to purchase either organic steric acid or regular steric acid that is plant-derived, not animal fat-derived.

Monounsaturated fatty acids

• Palmitoleic acid (16:1 n7)
• Oleic acid (18:1 n9)

→ Palmitoleic acid
Palmitoleic acid, an omega-7 fatty acid, is a promising anti-inflammatory MUFA that may help to ameliorate metabolic disorders when used as a dietary supplement. Although it is uncommon in plants, it is a component of skin lipids and supports the regeneration processes required for wound healing in the epidermis. In vivo and in vitro trials support palmitoleic acid in the treatment of vaginal atrophy, skin hyperpigmentation, wound infections, diabetes, and liver dysfunctions.

Palmitoleic acid is found in significant amounts in sea buckthorn oil (34-36%).

→ Oleic acid (Omega-9)
Oleic acid is probably the most commonly found fatty acid in vegetable oils; the most common human food sources are almond, olive (upwards of 78%), macadamia, high oleic sunflower and safflower, grapeseed, sesame, palm, rapeseed, soybean, butter, lard, and tallow. Carrier oils with a high content of oleic acid, such as olive oil (60-70%), are more resistant to the damaging effects of heat and light.

Oleic acid has been found to be fungistatic against a wide spectrum of saprophytic molds and yeasts. Oleic acid has also demonstrated the ability to penetrate the dermal-epidermal junction in a dose-dependent fashion, which can result in increased TEWL, as well as increased skin penetration of other oil constituents. Balancing oleic acid content with other fatty acids can mitigate concerns associated with this increase in TEWL.

Studies have shown oleic acid and lauric acid to be effective skin penetration enhancers by disrupting the lipid structure of the stratum corneum. One study showed that oleic acid optimizes cutaneous delivery of Lumiracoxib (LM), a non-steroidal COX-2 selective inhibitor anti-inflammatory drug, by significantly increasing drug retention in both the epidermis and the dermis. This activity ensures the drug moves continuously and consistently through the skin.

Another study showed that unsaturated fatty acids, specifically omega-9 fatty acids (oleic acid), modulate the inflammation in wounds and enhance the reparative response in vivo. Oleic acid-containing carrier oils may, therefore, be useful in treating cutaneous wounds.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

• *Linoleic acid (18:2 n6)
• *Alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n3)
• Punicic acid (18:3 n5)
• Gamma linolenic acid (18:3, n6)

Polyunsaturated oils are highly susceptible to oxidation. *Two of the polyunsaturated oils, alpha-linoleic acid and linoleic acid, are considered essential fatty acids (EFAs), making them especially important. Dietary consumption of PUFAs can be used in the prevention of a number of human diseases, many of which are associated with excess inflammation.

→ Linoleic Acid (Omega-6) (LA)
Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated essential fatty acid (PUFA) of the omega-6 series, that is important in building the membranes that surround every skin cell. It is necessary to the proper growth and development of the epidermis and is required for synthesis of the important long-chain ceramides necessary to protect against dry skin.

The presence of linoleic acid within the lipid matrix of the stratum corneum plays a core role in maintaining the water-permeability barrier of the skin, prevents the skin from peeling, prevents TEWL, improves the softness of the skin, improves the skin’s elasticity, and regulates the process of epidermal keratinization.

Linoleic acid also displays antibacterial activity and improves the functioning of sebaceous glands in oily or problematic skin types, thereby unblocking pores and reducing the formation or number of blackheads. It can also play a role in cellular regeneration and moderating inflammation.

A deficiency of linoleic acid in the skin can lead to its replacement by oleic acid thereby negatively impacting the skin’s barrier function and increasing TEWL. This lack can further lead to other serious skin problems, such as premature skin aging associated with a reduction in the strength of the skin’s supporting collagen fibers, which may also slow wound healing. It may also trigger hair loss. Dietary deficiency of linoleic acid results in a characteristic scaly skin disorder and excessive epidermal water loss.

Carrier oils rich in linoleic acid include safflower, sunflower (not high oleic acid version,) flax seed, hemp seed, wheatgerm, walnut, and sesame oil.

→ Alpha-linolenic acid (Omega-3) (ALA)
Alpha-linolenic acid, another essential fatty acid, is highly concentrated in flaxseed oil and to a lesser extent in sea buckthorn seed, canola, soy, perilla, and walnut oils. When ingested, the body converts ALA to eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid both of which are also omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids help to reduce inflammation. Applied topically, alpha-linolenic acid reduces inflammation and may be beneficial for chronic inflammatory skin conditions.

→ Gamma linolenic acid (Omega-6) (GLA)
One of the fatty acids derived from linoleic acid is gamma linolenic acid (GLA). GLA plays an important role in the formation of prostaglandins, which, in turn play an important role in the inflammatory process, blood clotting, stimulating smooth muscle in the uterus, inhibiting the secretion of gastrointestinal acid, and increasing the secretion of a protective mucous layer in the stomach. A deficiency of GLA can lead to a variety of inflammatory, autoimmune, and other disorders.

Carrier oils rich in gamma linolenic acid may play an important role in treating inflammatory conditions including eczema, atopic dermatitis, acne, psoriasis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Hemp seed oil and GLA appear to alleviate symptoms of atopic dermatitis and other skin diseases. GLA has also serves as an emollient for the skin and mucous membranes both internally and externally. Apart from human breast milk, evening primrose oil, black currant seed oil, hemp seed, and borage seed oil are the main sources of GLA, although it is also found in trace amounts in green leafy vegetables.

Fat-soluble Vitamins and Nutrients found in Carrier Oils
(mostly unsaponifiable fraction)

→ Phytosterols
Sterols, natural components present in many plants and animal species, are also essential for human and animal health. The richest natural sources of plant sterols in the human diet are unrefined vegetable oils, seeds, nuts, and legumes. Phytosterols are similar in structure and function to cholesterol, a lipid naturally found in human skin where it has a water-binding capacity and is very important in repairing damaged skin barrier function. Sterols in carrier oils, which do not include cholesterol, may play similar roles when applied to human skin. Carrier oil phytosterols are also useful in reducing inflammation for such skin conditions as skin eruptions, eczema, and itchy skin.

In plant oils, the composition of phytosterols may vary due to plant species, agronomic and climatic conditions, extraction and refining procedures, and the quality of the fruits or seeds.

Although phytosterols are minor components of carrier oils, they comprise the major portion of the unsaponifiable fraction and generally account for about 1% of the oil. The average content of sterols is between 142.64-1891.82mg/100g oil.

Phytosterols possess a variety of bio-actions that have been implicated in slowing the pathogenesis of chronic disease, demonstrating antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity as well as the capacity to promote detoxification, reduce cell proliferation, and/or lower serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Sterols are generally considered to be heat-stable, odorless, and tasteless.

The main phytosterols found in carrier oils are:

• beta-sitosterol
• Stigmasterol
• Campesterol
• delta-5-avenasterol

Beta-sitosterol (BSS) is the major phytosterol found in higher plants. In animals, BSS has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, anti-neoplastic, and immune-modulating activity. It is also a known antioxidant, able to reduce DNA damage and the level of free radicals, in addition to possibly increasing the level of typical antioxidant enzymes.

→ Squalene
Squalene, a triterpene, polyunsaturated hydrocarbon, derives its name from the shark, whose liver oil contains the richest source of squalene. In humans, squalene makes up between 10-14% of sebum. In carrier oils, olive oil contains one of the highest amounts of squalene at 0.2-0.7%.

Squalene shows some advantages for the skin as an emollient, antioxidant, and for its antitumor activities. Squalene appears to be highly effective for reducing free radical oxidative damage to the skin, as well as effectively inhibiting chemically induced skin, colon, and lung tumorigenesis in rodents. Truly one of nature’s great emollients, squalene is quickly and efficiently absorbed deep into the skin, restoring healthy suppleness and flexibility without leaving an oily residue.

Squalene is used as a material (contained in carrier oils) or additive (isolated ingredient) in topically applied vehicles such as lipid emulsions, creams and lotions.

→ Tocopherols/Vitamin E
The vitamin E family, often referred to as “tocopherols,” includes alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ) tocopherols, named here in order of their biological importance. Alpha-tocopherol is considered by some to be the most biologically active. Carrier oils may contain between 200-800 ppm of tocopherols.

Vitamin E is yet another nutrient that humans cannot synthesize and therefore must acquire from plants. It is one of the most important and potent antioxidants, which means that it is able to prevent cell damage from the destructive elements of free radicals, found in carrier oils. Free radicals, when in excess, can damage healthy tissue, destroy the collagen and elastin fibers that support the skin, and interfere with the formation of fresh, healthy skin cells, resulting in aging of the skin and making complexions blotchy and dull.

Vitamin E also helps to protect the skin against environmental pollutants. Vitamin E assists wound healing and has great repairing and regenerating properties. It is used topically to reduce scar formation and to treat burns, including radiation burns. In conjunction with beta-carotene, vitamin E decreases the harmful effects of the sun and photoaging.

One research study showed that vitamin E levels in the upper layers of the stratum corneum drop significantly after even a brief exposure to sunlight, but this can be remedied by a topical application of vitamin E in the form of a body wash (used in this study.) This topical application was also more effective at replacing the vitamin E in the skin than use of a dietary supplement.

Studies have shown that alpha-tocopherol provides a highly protective antioxidant activity in the skin and concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 1% are likely to be adequate to provide effective skin barrier protection. Vitamin E can be added to carrier oils as an isolated component to prevent oxidation of beta-carotene and vitamin A.

→ Vitamin A
Vitamin A is the name of a group of fat-soluble retinoids, including retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and retinyl esters. Dietary vitamin A is involved in immune function, vision, reproduction, and cellular communication. Two forms of vitamin A are available in the human diet: preformed vitamin A (retinol and its esterified form, retinyl ester) and provitamin A carotenoids. Preformed vitamin A is found in foods from animal sources, including dairy products, fish, and meat (especially liver). By far the most important provitamin A carotenoid is beta-carotene.

One study found that naturally aged, sun-protected skin and photoaged skin have important molecular features in common, including connective tissue damage, elevated matrix metalloproteinase levels, and reduced collagen production. Topical application of a 1% vitamin A solution for 7 days improved all of these indicators in both naturally aged and photoaged skin. Some symptoms of vitamin A deficiency include rough, dry, scaly skin; problems with gums and teeth; loss of smell and appetite; and night blindness.

Toxicity: Large dietary intake of vitamin A for long periods of time can lead to hypervitaminosis (excessive vitamin intake) with symptoms such as nausea, headache, vomiting, skin discoloration, excessive skin drying, and more.

→ β-carotene (Beta-carotene)
Beta-carotene is one of over five hundred carotenes that occur in nature. Beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A, is considered to be one of the most active of the carotenes. It is a potent scavenger of toxic oxygen radicals, especially those produced by chemicals in the air and those generated by our own metabolism. It has stronger immune-stimulating and thymic supportive activity than vitamin A.

Oils rich in beta-carotene, such as carrot herbal oil, palm oil, and sea buckthorn oil, tend to be a rich orange color. Palm oil also contains the carotene lycopene, which, like b-carotene, exhibits anticancer abilities.

Beta-carotene can accumulate in the skin as a result of dietary supplementation. It acts as a photoprotective agent in the skin, as it functions as a cellular screen against sunlight-induced free radical change. However, as with vitamin A, higher doses (15mg/day) and long-term usage (8 weeks) can be harmful.

→ Vitamin D
Vitamin D, sometimes called “the sunshine vitamin,” works with calcium to build strong, healthy bones and teeth. New evidence suggests that vitamin D also plays a role in cell proliferation and maturation.

→ *Lecithin
*As a phospholipid, lecithin is part of the saponifiable fraction.

Lecithin is a phospholipid commonly derived from egg yolk or soy oil. The name “lecithin” is derived from the Greek word likithos, meaning egg yolk. In the human body, lecithin is an important component of cellular membranes, particularly those of the brain and nerves. It is also a strong, natural emulsifying agent often used in food products, cosmetics like creams and lotions, and many transdermal drug delivery systems. Since lecithin is an integral part of cell membranes it is considered highly biocompatible and is indicated for psoriasis and eczema.

Lecithin is removed from some carrier oils by a process called “degumming.” Main carrier oils from which lecithin is extracted are soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and sunflower seed oil. Note: Because lecithin is produced from soy (a heavily genetically modified crop), it is very important to purchase only organic lecithin or sunflower lecithin, when using as an individual ingredient.

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Watch About Essential Oils and the Skin with Jade

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Aromatherapy and the Skin

Since being trained as an aromatherapist over 32 years ago, aromatherapy has grown tremendously in the field of skin care. A variety of research on the therapeutic benefits of essential oils supports their application and benefit for a wide range of skin conditions.

Essential oils are able to:

• reduce inflammation,
• enhance/support wound healing,
• treat fungal, bacterial, and viral infections,
• support and enhance the health of the skin,
• relieve itching,
• support healthy scar tissue formation,
• prevent wrinkles and slow the aging process,
• support the detoxification process,
• serve as penetration enhancers, e.g. for such things as water (to increase hydration to the skin)
• And much more.

According to Harris, “Aromatherapists have at their disposal remarkable tools that can simply and positively impact a range of commonly encountered skin conditions responsible for significant psychosocial distress. The aromatherapist is able to work at the level of the cutaneous interface not only through the judicious application of essential oils and their related products but also through touch, olfaction, and stress reduction with their subsequent positive impacts on skin health.”

With such a vast array of therapeutic benefits, it is no wonder that aromatherapy is growing in popularity within the cosmetics and esthetics industries, as well as with individual consumers seeking more natural means of maintaining and supporting the health not only of the skin but of their whole body.

Table 7.1 lists the therapeutic action desired as well as essential oils which exhibit that action. Please note: Only the twenty-four essential oils covered in this course are included.

Table 7.1 Essential Oil Therapeutics for the Skin

Therapeutic Action	Essential Oils
Anti-inflammatory – a substance which soothes and reduces inflammation	Roman Chamomile, Frankincense, Helichrysum, Lavender, Patchouli
Antibacterial – a substance which destroys bacteria	Eucalyptus globulus, Lemongrass, Tea tree
Antifungal – a substance which destroys or inhibits fungal growth	Lemongrass, Patchouli, Tea tree
Antiseptic – a substance which destroys or prevents the growth of microbes	Roman Chamomile, Frankincense, Helichrysum, Lavender, Lemon, Lemongrass, Patchouli, Tea tree
Astringent – a substance which causes cells to shrink; contracts, tightens, and binds tissues	Cedarwood, Rose Geranium, Lemon, Patchouli, Vetiver
Circulatory Stimulant/Tonic – a substance which enhances or increases blood circulation	Eucalyptus, Juniper berry, Laurel, Lemon, Lemongrass, Rosemary ct. camphor or cineole
Cellular rejuvenation – a substance which enhances cellular reproduction	Roman chamomile, Frankincense, Helichrysum, Lavender, Rosemary ct. verbenon
Detoxifier – a substance which enhances the removal of toxic substances from the body	Cypress, Fennel, Grapefruit, Juniper berry, Laurel, Lemon
Nervine/Relaxant - a substance which relaxes the nervous system, can reduce or soothe nervous disorders	Roman Chamomile, Frankincense, Lavender, Mandarin, Patchouli, Sweet orange, Vetiver, Ylang ylang
Vulnerary – a substance which promotes wound healing	Roman Chamomile, Frankincense, Helichrysum, Lavender, Rosemary ct. verbenon

Now let’s have a look at specific essential oils.

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Highlight on Core Essential Oils for the Skin

This section focuses on the specific actions the essential oil has on the skin but it is also of equal importance to appreciate the potential impact the essential oil has on the emotional well-being of the individual as well. Spend some time reflecting on each essential oil and how it can also soothe, uplift, energize, inspire, and relieve stress/anxiety in addition to its specific actions on the skin.

Essential Oil	Indicated for:
Bergamot
Citrus bergamia	acne, weeping eczema, oily complexion, cold sores, oily hair/skin, vitiligo, psoriasis
Roman chamomile
Chamaemelum nobile	Inflamed skin conditions: dermatitis, eczema, psoriasis, hives. Broken capillaries, acne, fungal infections, skin ulcers, slow-healing wounds, razor burn, itchy skin conditions. Abscesses (warm or hot compresses).
Clary sage
Salvia sclarea	eczema caused by stress or anxiety, inflamed skin conditions, mature skin, wrinkles, excessive sebum production, dry itchy skin
Copaiba
Copaifera officinalis	mature skin, wrinkles, scar tissue, wound healing, eczema, acne, atopic dermatitis, inflamed skin conditions, soothing to dry irritated skin, itchy skin
Cypress
Cupressus sempervirens	oily, sweaty skin and feet, broken capillaries, Rosaceae, bruises, cellulite, supportive wound healer, excessive sweating
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus globulus	herpes simplex, shingles, chickenpox, measles, acne, ulcers, wounds, mycotic infections, boils, burns, cuts
Sweet Fennel
Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce	sluggish, congested, or smoker’s skin (can be beneficial for stimulating microcirculation and detoxification), cellulite, spasmodic cough, fennel hydrosol may be utilized in compresses for conjunctivitis
Frankincense
Boswellia sacra	mature skin, wrinkles, scar tissue, postoperative wound healing (once sutures are removed), eczema, acne, inflamed skin conditions, blackheads, hives, soothing to dry irritated skin
Geranium
Pelargonium sp.	oily skin, hormone-related acne, acne; poor circulation in the skin caused by smoking; ringworm; head lice; dandruff; mouth ulcers, thrush (oral), and gum infections; wound and abscess healing; cellulite; fungal or bacterial infections of the skin; rosacea, cold sore (antiviral), acute or chronic inflammatory skin disorders
Grapefruit
Citrus paradisi	astringent, oily /congested skin, cellulite, water retention, hair loss
Helichrysum
Helichrysum italicum	acne, chronic dermatitis, eczema, scar tissue reduction/to support healthy scar tissue formation, burns, dermal inflammation, cuts and wounds, bruises, radiation burns, Herpes simplex, tissue trauma, broken capillaries, stretch marks, dry itchy skin, varicose veins, rosacea, psoriasis, aging skin
Juniper berry
Juniperus communis	poor elimination, slow healing sores, acne, oily skin, eczema, herpes, oily scalp
Laurel
Laurus nobilis	oily skin, acne, boils, slow-healing wounds, ulcers, pressure sores, fungal infections/mycoses
Lavender
Lavandula angustifolia	burns (recommend using Lavandula latifolia instead or in conjunction with), scrapes, abscesses, acne, athlete’s foot, eczema, inflamed skin conditions, psoriasis (as an anti-inflammatory), sunburn, relieves itching, insect bites, hives, open wounds or sores, poorly healing wounds, allergy (expressed on the skin), razor burn, stretch marks
Lemon
Citrus limon	acne, boils, comedones, premature aging skin (preventative), oily complexions, mouth ulcers, cellulite, herpes, Rosacea (couperose), tired, sagging and grayish (smoker’s) skin, capillary fragility, broken capillaries, varicose veins (can help to prevent and also to prevent them from getting worse)
Lemongrass
Cymbopogon citratus	acne, oily skin, boils, athletes’ foot, cellulite, excessive sweating, ‘has a special tightening effect on the elastin fibers in the corium and in the subcutis’, weakness of connective tissue, applicable to breast treatment (tightening), ringworm **Always dilute down in a vegetable oil or other base before applying to the skin!
Mandarin/Tangerine
Citrus reticulata	cellulite, acne, oily skin, edema
Marjoram, Sweet
Origanum majorana	inflamed skin conditions, wound healing, acne, eczema
Patchouli
Pogostemon cablin	aging or sagging skin, itchy or inflamed skin conditions, acne, athlete’s foot, cracked or chapped skin, eczema (weeping), wrinkles, irritated skin conditions, sores, fissures, inflamed scar tissue, fungal or parasitic skin infections, allergic inflammation, cellulite
Rosemary ct. verbenone
Salvia rosmarinus	rosacea, acne, seborrhea (oily skin with congestion), varicose veins, wound healing, promotes microcirculation, skin care
Tea Tree
Melaleuca alternifolia	acne, nail fungus, oily skin, abscesses, boils, cold sores11, cuts, dandruff, herpes simplex, insect bites, lice, rashes, shingles, infected wounds, varicose ulcers, athlete’s foot, ringworm, inflamed skin conditions, varicose veins, juvenile acne, acne rosacea, prevention of skin radiation burns, dermal mycoses (fungal infections)
Vetiver
Vetiveria zizanioides	acne, inflamed conditions (chronic and acute), oily skin (due to vetiver’s slight astringent effect), preventative for stretch marks and wrinkles, wound care, irritated skin, rashes, and topical bacterial or fungal infections
Ylang ylang
(Cananga odorata)	oily/combination skin, aging or stressed skin, scalp tonic, regulates sebum

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The Skin is a Pathway onto and into the Body

Understanding the skin’s structure and function guides botanical body care formulators in creating effective products. Everything placed onto the skin affects not only the skin cells but potentially the entire physical body.

Holism and the Skin

Before exploring skin anatomy and physiology, let’s consider our own skin holistically. The skin receives nourishment from both our diet and topical products, while also responding to our emotional state through its connection to the nervous system.

The skin provides valuable information about internal and emotional conditions. Common skin conditions like psoriasis and eczema often reflect internal imbalances. Skin problems arise from multiple factors: genetic predispositions, nutrition, hormones, medication side effects, stress, inflammatory processes, and gut health.

As aromatherapists, we recognize that the skin is a window to internal and external health. Skin pathologies cannot be effectively addressed without considering potential internal and emotional causes.

“Take a holistic approach to your skin’s health,” the Noodlemans advise. “Your skin responds not only to what you put in and onto your body, it also reflects your overall mental and physical health. Taking corrective and preventive measures that reduce sun-damage, increase exercise, promote healthy eating and decrease stress will help you look your best.”

Introduction to the Integumentary System

The skin is the most voluminous organ in the human body, comprising 15-16% of total adult body weight. It serves as the principal barrier between the internal body and the external environment. This deeply sensitive and resilient organ protects against biological, chemical, mechanical, and ultraviolet threats. As a significant contributor to systemic homeostasis, the skin regulates temperature, water balance, absorption and elimination, and vitamin D synthesis and mediates interactions between the immune, neurologic, and endocrine systems.

Understanding the Skin

The skin covers approximately eighteen square feet and weighs about twenty pounds. It is our largest vital organ, maintaining health and well-being in numerous ways. A single square inch of skin contains several million cells, around 650 sweat glands, about twenty feet of blood vessels, and thousands of sensory receptors.

• Unbroken, the skin’s primary function is to serve as a protective barrier against pathogens (bacteria/fungi) and excessive water loss while protecting underlying structures and organs.
• The skin regulates body temperature by constricting blood vessels in cold environments to preserve heat and producing sweat in warm conditions to cool through evaporation.
• As our largest sensory organ, the skin transmits neurological messages about touch, pressure, scent, pain, and temperature to the brain.
• The skin detoxifies by excreting wastes through sweat glands, synthesizes and stores vitamin D, and protects against UV damage by producing melanin. It also absorbs fat-soluble nutrients, including vitamins A, D, E, and K.
• The skin functions as part of the body’s immune system through its lymphatic network and specialized tissue constituents such as Langerhans cells. As a metabolic organ, the skin participates in fat metabolism, storage, and breakdown while helping regulate water and salt levels through perspiration.
• The skin maintains homeostasis through its protective function, temperature regulation, sensory perception, water balance, synthesis of vitamins and hormones, and absorption of essential nutrients.

The skin is a dynamic organ, continuously renewing as old cells shed and new cells develop. From infancy through adulthood and into old age, the skin adapts in size, shape, qualities, and functions according to changing demands.

A cross-section reveals three distinct layers: the epidermis (five layers), the dermis (two layers), and the subcutaneous layer. These layers work as an integrated system—a change in one layer inevitably affects the others.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN

The skin consists of three main layers:

• The epidermis—the outermost layer
• The dermis—the middle layer
• The hypodermis—the innermost layer

The Epidermis

The epidermis consists of five layers where living cells transform into dead cells. These layers, from outermost to innermost, include:

• A. The stratum corneum. The outermost epidermal layer features tough cells called keratinocytes that produce keratin, a fibrous protein that strengthens and waterproofs the skin.
• B. The stratum lucidum. This thin “clear layer” varies in thickness, becoming more pronounced on palms and soles. It contains hardened, nonliving keratin-filled cells similar to the stratum corneum.
• C. The stratum granulosum. This “transitional layer” (1-4 cells thick) contains cells beginning to die and harden (keratinize), losing significant oil and water content.
• D. The stratum spinosum. This 5-8 cell layer shows progressively flattening cells that have lost some oil and water, becoming almost tile-like as they rise through the layer.
• E. The stratum germinativum. The deepest epidermal layer contains cube-shaped cells and is the only layer where cell reproduction (mitosis) occurs. Skin regeneration begins here, influenced by factors including age, diet, circulation, temperature extremes, light exposure, medications, and smoking habits. Each new cell’s average lifecycle spans 5-6 weeks.

Additional epidermal cells include melanocytes (producing the UV-protective pigment melanin), Langerhans cells(participating in immune response), and Merkel cells (mechanoreceptors for light touch sensation). The epidermis continuously renews itself and gives rise to cutaneous adnexa—skin appendages with roles in sensation, contractility, lubrication, and temperature regulation, including hair, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and nails.

Note: Any skin treatment aimed at improvement requires at least 6-8 weeks before visible results appear.

The Dermis

Beneath the epidermis lies the dermis, which supports and nourishes the epidermis. The dermis comprises over 90% of the skin’s mass and consists of two layers: the papillary layer (outer) and the reticular layer (inner).

The papillary layer (approximately 1/5 of dermis thickness) contains loose connective tissue with capillaries, lymphatics, sensory neurons, and various fibers directly beneath the basement membrane. Its projections (papillae) form the base for fingerprint and toe print patterns.

The reticular layer, which bears most physical stress, contains dense collagen bundles and coarse elastin fibers, along with fibroblasts, mast cells, nerve fibers, lymph vessels, and epidermal appendages. This layer can stretch during pregnancy or weight gain, but tears when overstretched, creating stretch marks during healing.

The dermis contains:

• Connective tissue provides strength, resilience, and flexibility. The dermal connective tissue is made up of two primary fiber types: elastin, a protein that gives skin its elasticity (the ability to stretch and return to its original shape), and collagen, a complex protein that provides strength (comprising about 75% of fibrous material). These fibers are embedded in a gel-like substance primarily composed of mucopolysaccharides, particularly hyaluronic acid, which attracts and retains water to maintain skin moisture and flexibility.
• Blood and lymph vessels, including arterioles and capillaries, originate from subcutaneous arteries and veins. Vertical capillary loops supply nutrients to papillary structures and remove waste. Lymph vessels collect excess fluid that has diffused from capillaries, preventing swelling and removing waste.
• Hair follicles extend from the deep dermis to the skin surface. These tubular epithelial structures house growing hair. The erector pili muscle—the only skin muscle—attaches to each follicle, causing hair to stand erect in response to cold or emotion. Hair follicles provide entry points for essential oils to reach the dermal layer and bloodstream.
• Glands include sebaceous glands attached to hair follicles that produce sebum, an oily substance secreted onto the skin surface. Sebum lubricates hair and skin, prevents moisture loss, and has antibacterial properties. Some research suggests sebum may function primarily as a pheromone attracting the opposite sex. Sebaceous glands concentrate on the face, scalp, neck, upper back, and chest. The sudoriferous glands (sweat glands) help maintain body temperature through perspiration. When the hypothalamus detects elevated blood temperature, sympathetic nerves stimulate sweat glands. Evaporating perspiration cools the body. There are two types: apocrine (larger) and eccrine (smaller) glands.
• Sensory nerves make the skin our largest sense organ. Touch, critical for growth and development, communication, learning, comfort, and emotional bonding, was historically medicine’s primary therapeutic modality. Alternative treatments like massage and acupuncture are helping reintegrate touch therapy into medical practice.

The Hypodermis

The third layer below the dermis, the hypodermis, varies in thickness and consists of fatty tissue that provides body contours and smoothness. It cushions and protects vital organs, stores energy, and insulates effectively. The hypodermis functions as an endocrine organ, participates in immune response, and contains arterial networks branching into capillaries that extend into the dermis.

Skin Ecology: Layers of the Skin’s Barrier Function

As the principal interface between internal systems and the external environment, the skin maintains three interdependent protective layers collectively called the skin’s barrier: the dermal microbiome, the acid mantle, and the barrier function of the stratum corneum. Disruption of any of these systems has been linked to inflammatory skin conditions, including acne, rosacea, eczema, psoriasis, and atopic dermatitis. These layers work together to prevent infection and harmful substance entry, prevent water and nutrient loss, and maintain overall skin health.

The Dermal Microbiome

The skin microbiome comprises bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Like the gut microbiome, it significantly influences health and disease processes. Research shows diverse microbial populations colonize both the epidermis and dermis, modulating and informing immune system development. The skin creates an immense interface between the body and the environment, serving as a crucial convergence point between internal and external realms.

A key feature of the dermal microbiome is site-specific colonization—unique microbial communities inhabit distinct epidermal topographical niches determined by moisture content, anatomical location, and sebaceous gland prevalence. Researchers note that moist and dry skin sites are “as ecologically dissimilar as rain forests are to deserts.” Areas rich in sebaceous glands (back, face, chest) feature primarily Cutibacterium (formerly Propionibacterium) bacteria and Malassezia yeasts. “Dry” sites (buttocks, arms, legs) show the highest microbial diversity, predominantly Cutibacterium acnes, and Staphylococcus species. These microbes, along with Corynebacterium, represent the main commensal organisms found on skin.

Beyond body site differences, microbial signatures vary with local microenvironment changes between individuals and age groups and with health status, behaviors, and environmental exposures. Most skin microbiota are harmless or beneficial and essential for host defense. Despite popular belief that certain microbes are inherently dangerous, pathogenicity typically occurs only during dysbiosis—when microbial ecosystem balance is disturbed, or diversity diminishes—or when opportunistic bacteria breach the skin surface.

Skin-dwelling microbes play key roles in host defense and tissue repair. Disruptions to the stratum corneum microbiome from antibiotic use, hygiene practices, lifestyle factors (especially stress), and even gut dysbiosis can impair skin barrier function and increase transepidermal water loss (TEWL). Dysbiosis and reduced dermal biodiversity have been linked to numerous skin conditions, including atopic eczema, atopic dermatitis, acne, rosacea, psoriasis, impaired wound healing, inflammation, and skin cancer.

Sebaceous Glands, Sebum, and the Dermal Microbiome

Sebaceous glands, microscopic exocrine glands producing sebum, critically regulate skin homeostasis. They support barrier functions, promote skin integrity, mediate inflammation, deliver antioxidants, and manage microbial populations. They also participate in cutaneous endocrine and immune systems and function as stem cell reservoirs. Sebaceous glands distribute throughout the body except for the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, with the highest concentration on the scalp, face, neck, upper back, and chest.

Sebum combines fats (triglycerides, wax esters, squalene, cholesterol) and cellular debris discharged through the sebaceous duct connecting the gland to the hair follicle. It creates a protective film, maintaining pliability and regulating fluid exchange. Sebaceous glands produce distinctive lipids, including sapienic acid (unique to sebum), squalene, wax esters, triglycerides, and smaller amounts of cholesterol, cholesterol esters, and diglycerides.

Sebaceous glands promote healthy skin homeostasis by maintaining a balanced microbiome.
Sebum composition significantly influences cutaneous microbiota, restricting unwanted microbes while fostering beneficial populations. Sapienic acid (C16:1 n-10) demonstrates particularly notable antibacterial properties.

Sebaceous gland dysfunction contributes to conditions like acne and dry skin. Overproduction or altered chemical composition of sebum can cause acne, while insufficient production may lead to xerosis (abnormal skin or mucous membrane dryness), accelerated skin aging, and atopic dermatitis.

The Skin’s Acid Mantle

The epidermis is covered with a thin layer of natural lipids, and perspiration called the acid mantle. These lipids derive from sebum and the stratum corneum, while sweat glands produce perspiration. The acid mantle primarily protects against microbial infections and supports barrier function and stratum corneum integrity. It maintains an average pH of 4-6, varying with gender, age, and anatomical location.

Other influencing factors include sebum, skin moisture, sweat, genetics, detergents, topical antibacterials, occlusive dressings, and skin irritants. When the acid mantle loses acidity, the skin becomes more vulnerable to damage, infection, irritation, and sensitivity. The acid mantle represents a vital defense system containing elements that maintain crucial moisture levels, and carrier oils help support this valuable system.

About pH

The abbreviation pH stands for “power of hydrogen” or “potential of hydrogen” and measures a substance’s acidity or alkalinity. pH values range from 1 (most acidic) to 14 (most alkaline).

Water has a neutral pH of 7. Skin pH is slightly acidic, ranging from 4 to 6. Therefore, the skin benefits from neutral to slightly acidic products that support overall skin health.

The Skin’s Barrier Function

The skin’s barrier function is essential for human health. Under normal conditions, the stratum corneum maintains optimal skin hydration, supports innate antioxidant systems, produces microbe-regulating peptides, activates immune responses, and defends against external threats, including ultraviolet radiation, environmental toxins, allergens, and pathogens. According to Belkaid and Tamoutounour, “the skin is therefore charged with the formidable task of protecting the host from microbial invasion while maintaining a peaceful coexistence with its resident microbiota.”

The stratum corneum prevents the absorption of harmful substances and pathogen entry while restricting excessive water loss by providing a physical barrier between our bodies and the environment. It consists of corneocytes (terminally differentiated keratinocytes) encased in an extracellular protein and lipid matrix. This layer employs a “brick and mortar” design where cells (corneocytes) act as “bricks” while intercellular lipids serve as “mortar,” binding moisture between them.

Keratinocyte differentiation closely connects with extracellular matrix development. Lipids produced during epidermal differentiation originate from lamellar bodies (small secretory cells within keratinocytes) expelled from keratinocytes in the stratum granulosum. As differentiation concludes, lamellar granules discharge lipids and hydrolytic enzymes into intercellular spaces. These enzymes act on nearby phospholipids, producing the principal stratum corneum lipids.

This extracellular lipid matrix provides mechanical barrier functions, protecting the underlying epidermis and preventing both water loss (outward) and invasion by external particles and pathogens (inward). This bi-directional protection represents the epidermis’s principal role, specifically that of the stratum corneum.

Lipids of the Stratum Corneum

The principal stratum corneum lipids include ceramides (approximately 50%), cholesterol (27%) and its esters (10%), and fatty acids (10-15%). This lipid “mortar” prevents water loss through the stratum corneum.

Ceramides, a sphingolipid class, trap water molecules in their hydrophilic regions. These lipids form stacked bilayers with hydrophobic “heads” facing outward and hydrophilic “tails” pointing toward the opposing layer, surrounding corneocytes. This bilayer blocks water passage, preventing the loss of both water and natural moisturizing factor (NMF) through the skin.

Cholesterol, the most prevalent stratum corneum lipid, lubricates multiple layers of dry, dead cells, enhancing stratum corneum flexibility. Squalene, secreted onto the skin by sebaceous glands, serves as cholesterol’s precursor.

Fatty acids in the skin provide lubrication, support barrier function, prevent moisture loss, maintain acidic pH, and contribute to innate immunity through antimicrobial activity. Skin fatty acids include palmitic acid (C16:0), palmitoleic acid (C16:1 n-7), myristic acid (C14:0), stearic acid (C18:0), and linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6)—the most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in the epidermis.

Transepidermal Water Loss (TEWL) and the Natural Moisturizing Factor (NMF)

The stratum corneum regulates water levels in underlying skin and controls natural moisture flow from deeper layers before eventual evaporation from the skin surface. This flow is called transepidermal water loss (TEWL), and moisture homeostasis is crucial for maintaining barrier function and overall skin health.

Stratum corneum lipids and the natural moisturizing factor (NMF) maintain skin hydration and reduce TEWL. The NMF, found within corneocytes, consists of water-soluble compounds, including amino acids (approximately 50%), urea, lactic acid, inorganic salts, sugars, and electrolytes. These compounds, derived from filaggrin protein breakdown, keep skin moist and pliable by attracting and retaining water, supporting desquamation (corneocyte shedding), and maintaining stratum corneum barrier function.

NMF components act as humectants, attracting and absorbing atmospheric water and drawing moisture into corneocytes. Low NMF levels may contribute to skin aging, disorders, ichthyosis, and general xerosis.

The Role of Fatty Acids and the Skin

Lipids form essential components of all cellular membranes and influence permeability. Triglycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids (glycosylceramides), and ceramides all contribute to epidermal barrier function. Fatty acids, which constitute these cellular lipids, maintain stratum corneum structure and function, where they provide moisture and insulation barriers. They enhance barrier function, offer anti-inflammatory benefits, serve as natural penetration enhancers, and support healthy skin activities.

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are particularly important for normal stratum corneum structure and function. Linoleic acid (LA), an essential fatty acid component of ceramides, plays a crucial role in intercellular lipid complex formation. EFA deficiency alters barrier function, disrupts epidermic homeostasis, and can cause excessive TEWL, dryness, scaliness, redness, dermatitis, and other inflammatory signs.

Additional factors affecting stratum corneum lipids include temperature extremes (sunburn, windburn, frostbite), low humidity, winter heating, age, genetics, seasonal changes, and diet. Solvents, detergents, irritating chemicals, and even excessive water and soap use can break down protective lipid layers and increase TEWL by compromising natural water-holding capacity. Lipid deficiencies may result in dehydrated skin or xerosis. Even acute psychological stress can negatively impact barrier function.

Moisturizers and Skin Barrier Repair

Maintaining a healthy skin barrier is essential, particularly for individuals with conditions exacerbated by dryness, such as psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and photodamage. These disorders involve fundamental barrier dysfunction, increasing vulnerability to environmental factors causing dryness and irritation.

Daily skin maintenance is crucial for both adults and children, even without such conditions.

Moisturizers include emollients, humectants, and occlusives. Applied topically, they improve, maintain, and support barrier function while enhancing hydration by preventing or reducing TEWL.

• Emollients (from Latin “to soften”) smooth the skin surface, prevent TEWL, reduce inflammation, and support the lipid matrix. Emollient products include carrier oils, creams, lotions, ointments, butters, and balms.
• Humectants (such as honey and glycerin) attract water to the skin.
• Occlusive substances (waxes, lecithin) create a hydrophobic layer on the skin surface, preventing TEWL.

Topical carrier oils and products containing them effectively deliver fatty acids to the skin and may help prevent and treat skin conditions. Generally, topical fatty acids support the structure and barrier function of the stratum corneum.

Both the topical application and ingestion of linoleic acid-rich oils can reverse symptoms of EFA deficiency in animals and humans. Topical carrier oils, particularly those rich in essential fatty acids, can significantly benefit skin barrier restoration, wound healing, wrinkle prevention, and the treatment of inflammatory conditions, including eczema, dermatitis, and psoriasis.

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Watch: Meet the Skin

 

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The following document provides you with a general overview of what creates an aromatic program along with charts to refer to, if needed, while you are doing your case studies.

• The Aromatic program (click to download)

 

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Watch Blending Observations with Jade

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BLENDING OBSERVATIONS

The following are a series of observations about blending. They are listed here to serve as helpful guidance during the blending process.

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✮ Blend essential oils first

When creating an aromatherapy massage oil, cream, gel, or other application, it is best to blend the essential oils together first. The essential oils will merge together more quickly this way. If you add each essential oil separately directly into a base product, it will take longer for them to blend together.

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✮ Glass: A valuable tool

Whether creating a blend or a synergy, it is most beneficial to combine the essential oils in a glass container first rather than plastic. Plastic seems to alter the aroma and dull the therapeutic synergistic blending of the oils themselves. It is also possible that a small quantity of essential oil is naturally drawn into the plastic and the essential oil may pull some of the plastic constituents into the blend. **This is not the case for PET bottles. So, I recommend avoiding the use of plastic, except PET plastic, for blending essential oils. One can always add the synergy into a base product and then into a plastic bottle for immediate use, when needed or desired. Glass, on the other hand, appears to support the successful integration of the essential oils and should be used as the first vehicle for blending.

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✮ Synergy Shake-down

A synergy is a combination of 2 or more essential oils without a carrier. Once you have placed 3 to 5 essential oils inside a glass bottle, it is important to swirl and shake the essential oils around. This can be accomplished by placing the lid securely on the bottle and then gently shaking. This will allow the oils to move around, interact, and merge together. One should shake the bottle for at least 2 to 3 minutes. Once you have done this, open the bottle and see how the synergy is merging together.

Sometimes one of the essential oils is still taking over the aroma; this can mean one of two things: either the synergy needs to be shaken more or more drops of the other essential oils in the synergy need to be added. It is wise, before adding additional drops, to repeat the shaking of the bottle a few more times. This can sometimes have the effect of merging the essential oils more closely together. If after this exercise one of the essential oils is still showing up more than it should, you can add a drop or two of the other essential oils in the synergy. This can often have an immediate balancing effect on the whole blend. (See In Practice below entitled “To Shake or Not To Shake”.)

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✮ Synergizing time

If you have ever blended before, you will have noticed how a blend or synergy can change over time. Like all relationships, the interaction of one essential oil with another, as well as the interaction of a large number of chemical constituents, is bound to create an ongoing dialogue as they figure out ways to merge, enhance, or dull the other. Basically, when essential oils are blended together, it takes time for them to merge. Synergizing time takes into account that a blend or synergy will continue to change and evolve over time.

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InPractice: To Shake or Not To Shake

There appears to be some differences of opinion within the aromatherapy community as to whether one should shake their blends or not. This appears to be a matter of opinion rather than of scientific fact, so it is truly up to the individual to decide what feels right to them.

Many subtle/energetic aromatherapy practitioners believe that a blend/synergy should be gently rolled in the hand. It should be noted that homeopathic remedies use shaking as an important aspect of potentizing the remedy. According to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, “A concept that became ‘potentization,’ which holds that systematically diluting a substance, with vigorous shaking at each step of dilution, makes the remedy more, not less, effective by extracting the vital essence of the substance.” Other aromatherapists believe that a blend should be shaken to ensure the oils have been properly blended together. In the authors’ experience, shaking a blend is most beneficial. Either way appears to be fine as both methods have been employed for years with great success.

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